fagen et al.

Question 1

psychology being investigated

Answer 1

operant conditioning

Question 2

shaping

Answer 2

behaviour is gradually changed through multiple stages until the
animal can consistently reproduce the desired behaviour. Rewards are given for behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired behaviour.

Question 3

behavioural chaining

Answer 3

animals are trained to perform a sequence (chain) of behaviours using reinforcement. Each behaviour is learned through shaping.Then, the animal is only rewarded when the first 2 behaviours are performed consecutively. Then a third behaviour will be added, removing and giving rewards until the full chain has been learned.

Question 4

types of reinforcement

Answer 4

1. positive reinforcement
2. negative reinforcement
3. punisment
4. primary reinforcement
5. secondary reinforcement

Question 5

positive reinforcement

Answer 5

Target behaviour is followed by something desirable; behaviour
becomes more likely

Question 6

negative reinforcement

Answer 6

Removal of an aversive/negative
stimulus as a reward following a target behaviour

Question 7

primary reinforcement

Answer 7

Using a reinforcer that meets a biological need

Question 8

secondary reinforcement

Answer 8

Using a reinforcer that does not meet a biological need but is associated with a primary reinforcer

Question 9

background

Answer 9

• Traditional elephant trainers (mahouts) use operant conditioning techniques to
  train working elephants using punishment and negative reinforcement.
  -These methods raise concerns about animal welfare and keeper safety, so this study used rewards to train elephants.
• The target behaviour was a ‘trunk wash’ (chain of behaviours necessary to test elephants for tuberculosis).
• Secondary reinforcement training was used to shape the necessary behaviours
  and then chain them together. First, a whistle (secondary reinforcer) was associated with the primary reinforcer (chopped bananas). The trainers then
  rewarded the elephants directly after each desired behaviour, using the whistle

Question 10

aim

Answer 10

To investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement could be used to train elephants to voluntarily complete a trunk wash.

Question 11

research method

Answer 11

structured, non-participant observation.

Question 12

data collection techniques

Answer 12

A behavioural checklist was used to measure how successful the
elephants were in completing trunk-wash behaviours, it included:
1. Trunk here
2. Trunk up
3. Trunk down
4. Blow into the bucket
5. Hold steady

Question 13

variables

Answer 13

1. minutes of training
2. number of verbal cues made to the elephant
3. success rate for each behaviour and sequence- success criteria is 80%

Question 14

sample

Answer 14

Size: 5.

Demographic: elephants housed at the same stable in Nepal; four aged 5–7 years , (juvenile) one adult in her 50s; all female.

Sampling technique: the elephants were chosen as they were docile
and not pregnant; handlers were available and willing.

Question 15

procedure

Answer 15

The 5-step trunk wash was taught using secondary positive reinforcement, shaping and behavioural chaining . Training sessions lasted 2.5-3 hours. Techniques involved:
-capturing: banana given following naturally occurring desired behaviours
- luring: positioning banana to encourage desired behaviours
-verbal cues: one-syllable verbal cues to prompt the elephants to show the trunk-wash behaviours
-desensitisation: the trainers gradually brought the syringe (an aversive stimulus) closer to the elephant’s trunk; the elephant was given banana each time she allowed the syringe nearer
-counter conditioning: conditioning the elephant to associate the syringe with
banana.

Question 16

controls

Answer 16

1. The observer used the same behavioural checklist in each session, including
   detailed operational descriptions.
2. The training procedure was standardised. eg. same verbal cues used

Question 17

ethical issues

Answer 17

1. Elephants, although chained, were free to walk away if they did not want to participate.
2. Pain and distress- This reduced distress/psychological harm for the animals and risk of physical harm to the trainers

Question 18

results

Answer 18

1. The juveniles learned the full trunk wash in 25–35 sessions; mean12 mins per session (total training time: 367 mins).
2. The adult failed to learn the full sequence.
   – She did not meet success criteria for blowing and hold steady.
   – She was also never fully desensitised to the syringe.
3. Two juveniles also failed hold steady, except as part of the full trunk wash.
4. The success rate for accurate individual behaviours/sequences increased from 39 to 89 % after 35 sessions.
5. The most difficult behaviour to learn was trunk here/trunk in hand (295 offers).
6. The easiest behaviour to learn was blow into bucket

Question 19

conclusion

Answer 19

Secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training juvenile elephants to voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk wash.

Question 20

evaluation

Answer 20

1. Reliability
   -behavioural checklist (S)
2. Validity
   -no additional cues from the mahouts (S)
   - problem wit behavioural checklist (W)
3. Objectivity
   -ratin success and failure (W)
4. Generalistaions
   -generalising beyond the sample (W)
   -generalising to everyday life (S)

Question 21

issues and debates

Answer 21

1. Individual and situational explanations
   - Individual differences in age/physical health of the adult elephant may explain her lack of learning.
   - Situational factors may have affected her ability to learn the trunk wash. eg. The trainers may have responded differently to her due to her age.
2. Application to everyday life
   -Fagen et al. developed a safe, ethical and effective way of training elephants to perform health checks.
   -This procedure will help improve animal health and benefit humans, who can catch tuberculosis from elephants.
   - Animals could be trained for other veterinary procedures using these principles, eg. taking blood samples

3.The use of animals in research
-Small sample follows advice to reduce sample size and use the minimum
number of animals required.
-Distress/pain was reduced by only using positive reinforcement The elephants were able to move away if they wanted to.