Research methods Flashcards
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What is an aim?
A general expression of what the researcher tends to investigate
What is the difference between a directional and non directional hypothesis?
A directional hypothesis states whether changes are greater or lesser, positive or negative
A non directional hypothesis doesnt state the direction just that there is a difference, correlation, assocaition
What is the IV and DV
A researcher causes the IV to vary and records the effect of the IV on the dependant variable (dv)
What is extraneous variables?
Nuisance variables that ‘muddy the water’ and may make it difficult to detect an affect. A researcher may control some of these
What is confounding variables?
Change systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure if any observed change in the DV is due to the CV or IV
What is Demand characteristics?
Refers to any cues from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study and change ppt behvaiour
What is investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the outcome of the research and also on design decisions
What is randomisation?
The use of chance when designing investigations to control for the effects of bias eg allocating ppt to conditions
What is standardisation
Using the same formalised procedures for all ppts in a research study otherwise differences become EVS
What is a pilot study?
Small scale trial run of an investigation to road test procedures so research design can be modified
What are the point of control groups?
They are used to set comparison and act as a baseline to establish caution
Difference between single blind and double blind
Single blind - A ppt doesnt know the aims of the study so dc are reduced
Double blind -both ppt and researcher dont know the aims of the study to reduce dc and investigator effects
What are the three experimental designs?
Independant groups : One group does condition A and a second group does condition B by being randomly allocated to experimental groups
Repeated Measures : Some ppts take part in all conditions so the order should be counterbalanced
Matched pairs : Two groups of participants are used but they are matched on ppt varialbles
Advantages and disadvantages of an independant groups design
Advantages
- no order effects as only practice once so cant become bored –> controls important cv
- ppts only tested once so cant guess aims –> natural behaviour
Disadvantages
- ppt in two groups are difference acting as EV and CV so reduces validity
- need twice as many ppts as repeated measures for same data so more time is spent recruiting –> expensive
Advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures
Advantages
- person in both conditions has the same characteristics which controls an important cv
- half the number of ppt is needed so less time spent recruiting ppts
Disadvantages
- order effects are a problem as ppt may do better/worse when doing a task twice –> reduces validity
- ppt guess aims so they change behavior
Advantages and disadvantages of matched pairs
Advantages
- ppt matched on a variable which controls ppt variables and enhances results
- no order effects
Disadvantages
- matching is not perfect –> time consuming so cannot address all ppt variables
- more ppts
What are the types of experiment
Laboratory experiment - ev and cv are regulated so ppts go to researcher, this means that the IV is manipulated and DV recorded
Field Experiment - A natural setting where the researcher goes to ppt so the IV is manipulated and the effect on DV is recorded
Natural experiment - Experimenter does not manipulate the IV but something/someone else causes it to vary and the DV may be naturally occurring or may be devised by experimenter and measured in lab
Quasi Experiment - IV based on pre existing difference between people eg age/gender and the DV may be naturally occurring or may be devised by experimenter and measured in lab
Advantages and disadvantages of Laboratory experiment
ADVANTAGES
- Evs and Cvs controlled so the effect of EVS and CVS can be minimised allowing for cause and effect
- Can be more easily replicated as greater control so less chance the new EVS introduced so findings can be confirmed
DISADVANTAGES
- lack generalisability by being artificial and ppt knowing they are being studied
- demand characteristics meaning that there are cues in their situation that invite a particular response so they findings might be explained by this rather than effect of iv
Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment
ADVANTAGES
- more natural so can be generalisable
- ppts unaware of being studied so higher external validity
DISADVANTAGES
- observed changes in the DV may not be due to the IV but to CVS/EVS so hard to establish cause and effect
- there are ethical issues as ppts may not have given informed consent which is an invasion of ppts privacy raising ethical issues
Advantages and disadvantages of natural experiment
ADVANTAGES
- may be the only practical option as cant manipulate the ev
- involve real world issues such as effect of natural disaster on stress levels so findings more relevant to other similar situations
DISADVANTAGES
-event may only occur rarely which can limit scope for generalising findings
- ppt are not randomly allocated so experimenter had no control over which ppt are placed as IV is pre existing resulting in uncontrolled cv
Advantages and disadvantages of quasi experiment
ADVANTAGES
- high control as under controlled conditions so replication possible
- the iv is a difference between people so comparisons between types of people can be made
DISADVANTAGES
- ppt not randomly allocated so experimenter had no control over which ppt are placed as IV is pre existing resulting in uncontrolled cv
–> ppts variables may have caused the change in the DV acting as CV
- causal relationship not demonstrated as iv not manipulated
What are the types of sampling
Random Sample - every person in a target pop has an equal chance of being selected
Systematic sample - ppts are selected using a set pattern eg list in alphabetical order
Stratified sampling - sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups within a population
Opportunity Sampling - people who are nearest and easy to obtain
Volunteer Sample - Ppts select themself
What is a population
The large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying
What is a sample
Not possible to include all members of the population in the study so a smaller group is selected
What is generalisations
The sample that is drawn should be representative of population
How does random sample work?
Lottery method - all members of target pop are given a number and placed in a hat or computer randomiser
Advantages and disadvantages of random sample
+ unbiased so evs and cvs controlled
- time consuming to get list of pop
- ppts may refuse to take part
How does systematic sampling work
Every Nth person is selected from a list of target pop
advantages and disadvantages of systematic sample
+ unbiased as objective
- time and effort
How does stratified sampling work
Subgroups are identified eg gender or age and relative percent of subgroup[s are reflected in the sample
advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling
+ representative as characteristics of target pop chosen so allows for generalisability
- strata can not reflect all the ways in which people are different
How does opportunity sampling work
Ask people nearby
advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling
+ quick method as it is convenient
- sample is unrepresentative as drawn from specific area so findings cant be generalised
how does volunteer sampling work
advertise
advantages and disadvantages of volunteer sample
+ ppts are willing
- volunteer bias
What are the ethical issues
- Conflict: between rights of ppts and aims of research
- Informed consent : informed judgement about whether to take part but may reveal aims
- Deception : deliberately misleading or withholding information so consent is not informed
- Protection from harm : ppts should be at no more risk than they would be in every day life
- Privacy and confidentiality : Right to control information about ourselves
How do you deal with conflict ?
BPS code of conduct to protect ppts based on four principles
- respect
- competence
- responsibility
- integrity
How to deal with informed consent
- consent form
- alternative forms of consent are :
- presumptive : ask a similar group
- prior general : ask to be decieved
- retrospective : get consent after the study
How to deal with deception
- debrief about full aims of the study
- debrief about details that were not given
- debrief about what their data will be used for
- debrief about their right to withhold data
How to deal with protection from harm
- given right to withdraw
- reassured behaviour was normal
- researcher should provide counselling
how to deal with privacy and confidentiality
- personal details must be protected
- researchers refer to ppt using numbers, initials or false names
- ppts data must not be shared with other researchers
What is a correlation
Ilustrates the strengths and direction of an association between two co variables
What is a scattergram
One co-variable on the x axis and other on the y-axis
What are types of correlation
- Positive : co variables increase together
- Negative : one co variable increases and other decreases
- Zero : no relationship
Why can cause and effect not be demonsttrated in a correlation
No manipulation of variables and so cause and effect not demonstrated
Advantages and disadvantages of correlations
+ measure of how two variables are related so future hypotheses can be suggested
+ it is economical as no need for controlled environment and can use secondary data
- no cause and effect as correlations presented as causal in media when really they only show how 2 variables are related
- another untested variable may explain relationship between co variables so false conclusions
What is an observational techniques
Way of seeing and listening to what people do without having to ask them
What are the types of observational techniques
Naturalistic - takes place where target behaviour would occur
Controlled - manipulation of variables
Covert - ppts unaware of being studied
Overt - ppts are aware of being studies
Participant observation - researcher becomes part of group they are studying
Non participant observation - researcher remains separate from group they are studying
Advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation
+ high external validity
- low control ober cvs/evs so hard to detect patterns
Advantages and disadvantages of controlled
+ can be replicated so easier to standardise procedures and findings can be checked to see if they occur again
- low external validity as behaviours may be contrived as a result of the setting
Advantages and disadvantages of covert
+ reduce demand characteristics
- people may not want behaviour recorded
Advantages and disadvantages of overt
+ more ethically as ppts given consent
- demand characteristics
Advantages and disadvantages of ppt observation
+ greater insight as researcher in same situation
- possible loss of objectivity as they may identify too strongly with those they are studying
Advantages and disadvantages of non ppt observation
+ more objective as they maintain a distance so less chance of bias
- loss of insight as researcher too far removed from those they are studying
What are the observational designs
- Behavioural categories - target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories
- Event sampling - A target behaviour recorded every time it occurs
- Time sampling - Observations made at regular intervals eg once every 15secs
Advantages and disadvantages of behavioural categories
- difficult to make clear and unambigous
- dumped behaviours go unrecorded –> dustbin categories
Advantages and disadvantages of event sampling
+ useful for infrequent behaviours as it stills pick up behaciour that do not occur at regular intervals
- complex behaviour oversmiplified affecting validity
Advantages and disadvantages of time sampling
+ reduces number of observations so more systematic and structured
- unrepresentative as could miss details outside timescale
What are the self report techniques
Questionnaires - pre set list of written questions to which a ppt responds
Interviews - interaction between interviewer and interviewee
What are the types of interviewsq
Structured - pre determined questions in a fixed order
Semi - questions but further questions allowed to be asked based on answers
Unstructured - no set questions and interviewee encouraged to elaborate
Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaries
+ distributed easily
+ straightforward to analyse
- responses not truthful
- response bias
Advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews
+ easy to replicate as standardised
- interviewers cannot elaborate
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured
+ flexibility
- increased risk if interviewer bias and allows for unconscious cues
What needs to be avoided when designing a questionnaire
- avoid jargon
- avoid double barreled questions
- avoid leading questions
difference between open and closed questions (Advantages and disadvantages)
closed questions means that the respondent has limited choices and date quantitative
+ analysed
- responses restricted so forced unto an answer
open questions are own answers to produce qualitative date
+ more detailed answers
- difficult to analyse
how to design interviews
- interview schedule - standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover
- quiet room - interviewee will open up
- rapport - neutral questions so ppt is relaxed
- ethics - treated in confidence
Aims of a pilot study
Small scale trial run of a research design using a small number of ppts in order to find out if certain things dont work
What is qualitative data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)
Non numerical data expressed in words
+ richness of detail so higher validity
- difficult to analyse as cant make patterns
- researcher bias and subjective interpretation
What is quantitative data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)
Numerical data
+ analysed
- less detail so low validity
What is primary data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)
First hand data collected for purpose of investigation
+ relavent to aims
- time and effor
What is secondary data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)
Collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
+ inexpensive
- outdated
What is meta analysis data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)
A type of secondary data that involves combining data from a large number of studies
+ increases validity so generalisations can be made
- publication bias so negative results left out
What are the measures of central tendency
Mean - arithmetic average add up all scores and divide by no of scores
Median - middle value in ascending order
Mode - most frequent or common value
Advantages and disadvantages of mean
+ sensitive as include all scores
- one large or small number can distort
Advantages and disadvantages of median
+ only focused on middle so less affected by extreme scores
- extreme values ignored
Advantages and disadvantages of mode
+ relevant to categorical data
- simple as mode may be at one extreme
what are the measures of dispersion
range -highest to lowest differnce
standard deviation - average spread round the mean
Advantages and disadvantages of range
+ easy to calculate
- does not take into account distribution of scores
Advantages and disadvantages of SD
+ precise as includes all values
- misleading as distorted by extreme values
what is normal distribution?
most items in middle so bell shaped curve
what is skewed distribution
distributions that lean to one side or other because items at lower or upper end
difference between positive and negativ skew
-ve has distribution towards left but posotive to right
CHI SQUARED / SIGN TEST
chi squared - see the difference between observed and expected
sign test - statistical test of difference that allows a researcher to determine the significance of their investigation when nominal data is present
SEARCH ONLINE
What is peer review
scrutinised by peers in field for validation, funding and amendements
Advantages and disadvantages of peer review
+ minimised fraudulent research and increases credibility
- publication bias
- ground breaking research buried as reviewers may be more critical of research that contradicts own view
How does psychological research affect the econmoy
- ROLE OF THE FATHER
- more flexible working arrangement
DEVELOPMENT OF TREATMENT FOR DISORDERS - ACCESS TO DRIGS AND SSRIS
- MANAGE CONDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTE