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psychology (year 1 and 2) > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general expression of what the researcher tends to investigate

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2
Q

What is the difference between a directional and non directional hypothesis?

A

A directional hypothesis states whether changes are greater or lesser, positive or negative
A non directional hypothesis doesnt state the direction just that there is a difference, correlation, assocaition

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3
Q

What is the IV and DV

A

A researcher causes the IV to vary and records the effect of the IV on the dependant variable (dv)

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4
Q

What is extraneous variables?

A

Nuisance variables that ‘muddy the water’ and may make it difficult to detect an affect. A researcher may control some of these

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5
Q

What is confounding variables?

A

Change systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure if any observed change in the DV is due to the CV or IV

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6
Q

What is Demand characteristics?

A

Refers to any cues from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study and change ppt behvaiour

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7
Q

What is investigator effects?

A

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the outcome of the research and also on design decisions

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8
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance when designing investigations to control for the effects of bias eg allocating ppt to conditions

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9
Q

What is standardisation

A

Using the same formalised procedures for all ppts in a research study otherwise differences become EVS

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10
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

Small scale trial run of an investigation to road test procedures so research design can be modified

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11
Q

What are the point of control groups?

A

They are used to set comparison and act as a baseline to establish caution

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12
Q

Difference between single blind and double blind

A

Single blind - A ppt doesnt know the aims of the study so dc are reduced
Double blind -both ppt and researcher dont know the aims of the study to reduce dc and investigator effects

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13
Q

What are the three experimental designs?

A

Independant groups : One group does condition A and a second group does condition B by being randomly allocated to experimental groups

Repeated Measures : Some ppts take part in all conditions so the order should be counterbalanced

Matched pairs : Two groups of participants are used but they are matched on ppt varialbles

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14
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of an independant groups design

A

Advantages
- no order effects as only practice once so cant become bored –> controls important cv
- ppts only tested once so cant guess aims –> natural behaviour

Disadvantages
- ppt in two groups are difference acting as EV and CV so reduces validity
- need twice as many ppts as repeated measures for same data so more time is spent recruiting –> expensive

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15
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures

A

Advantages
- person in both conditions has the same characteristics which controls an important cv
- half the number of ppt is needed so less time spent recruiting ppts

Disadvantages
- order effects are a problem as ppt may do better/worse when doing a task twice –> reduces validity
- ppt guess aims so they change behavior

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16
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of matched pairs

A

Advantages
- ppt matched on a variable which controls ppt variables and enhances results
- no order effects

Disadvantages
- matching is not perfect –> time consuming so cannot address all ppt variables
- more ppts

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17
Q

What are the types of experiment

A

Laboratory experiment - ev and cv are regulated so ppts go to researcher, this means that the IV is manipulated and DV recorded

Field Experiment - A natural setting where the researcher goes to ppt so the IV is manipulated and the effect on DV is recorded

Natural experiment - Experimenter does not manipulate the IV but something/someone else causes it to vary and the DV may be naturally occurring or may be devised by experimenter and measured in lab

Quasi Experiment - IV based on pre existing difference between people eg age/gender and the DV may be naturally occurring or may be devised by experimenter and measured in lab

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18
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of Laboratory experiment

A

ADVANTAGES
- Evs and Cvs controlled so the effect of EVS and CVS can be minimised allowing for cause and effect
- Can be more easily replicated as greater control so less chance the new EVS introduced so findings can be confirmed

DISADVANTAGES
- lack generalisability by being artificial and ppt knowing they are being studied
- demand characteristics meaning that there are cues in their situation that invite a particular response so they findings might be explained by this rather than effect of iv

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19
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment

A

ADVANTAGES
- more natural so can be generalisable
- ppts unaware of being studied so higher external validity

DISADVANTAGES
- observed changes in the DV may not be due to the IV but to CVS/EVS so hard to establish cause and effect
- there are ethical issues as ppts may not have given informed consent which is an invasion of ppts privacy raising ethical issues

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20
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of natural experiment

A

ADVANTAGES
- may be the only practical option as cant manipulate the ev
- involve real world issues such as effect of natural disaster on stress levels so findings more relevant to other similar situations

DISADVANTAGES
-event may only occur rarely which can limit scope for generalising findings
- ppt are not randomly allocated so experimenter had no control over which ppt are placed as IV is pre existing resulting in uncontrolled cv

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21
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of quasi experiment

A

ADVANTAGES
- high control as under controlled conditions so replication possible
- the iv is a difference between people so comparisons between types of people can be made

DISADVANTAGES
- ppt not randomly allocated so experimenter had no control over which ppt are placed as IV is pre existing resulting in uncontrolled cv
–> ppts variables may have caused the change in the DV acting as CV
- causal relationship not demonstrated as iv not manipulated

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22
Q

What are the types of sampling

A

Random Sample - every person in a target pop has an equal chance of being selected
Systematic sample - ppts are selected using a set pattern eg list in alphabetical order
Stratified sampling - sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups within a population
Opportunity Sampling - people who are nearest and easy to obtain
Volunteer Sample - Ppts select themself

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23
Q

What is a population

A

The large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying

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24
Q

What is a sample

A

Not possible to include all members of the population in the study so a smaller group is selected

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25
Q

What is generalisations

A

The sample that is drawn should be representative of population

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26
Q

How does random sample work?

A

Lottery method - all members of target pop are given a number and placed in a hat or computer randomiser

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27
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of random sample

A

+ unbiased so evs and cvs controlled
- time consuming to get list of pop
- ppts may refuse to take part

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28
Q

How does systematic sampling work

A

Every Nth person is selected from a list of target pop

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29
Q

advantages and disadvantages of systematic sample

A

+ unbiased as objective
- time and effort

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30
Q

How does stratified sampling work

A

Subgroups are identified eg gender or age and relative percent of subgroup[s are reflected in the sample

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31
Q

advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

+ representative as characteristics of target pop chosen so allows for generalisability
- strata can not reflect all the ways in which people are different

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32
Q

How does opportunity sampling work

A

Ask people nearby

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33
Q

advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A

+ quick method as it is convenient
- sample is unrepresentative as drawn from specific area so findings cant be generalised

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34
Q

how does volunteer sampling work

A

advertise

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35
Q

advantages and disadvantages of volunteer sample

A

+ ppts are willing
- volunteer bias

36
Q

What are the ethical issues

A
  • Conflict: between rights of ppts and aims of research
  • Informed consent : informed judgement about whether to take part but may reveal aims
  • Deception : deliberately misleading or withholding information so consent is not informed
  • Protection from harm : ppts should be at no more risk than they would be in every day life
  • Privacy and confidentiality : Right to control information about ourselves
37
Q

How do you deal with conflict ?

A

BPS code of conduct to protect ppts based on four principles
- respect
- competence
- responsibility
- integrity

38
Q

How to deal with informed consent

A
  • consent form
  • alternative forms of consent are :
  • presumptive : ask a similar group
  • prior general : ask to be decieved
  • retrospective : get consent after the study
39
Q

How to deal with deception

A
  • debrief about full aims of the study
  • debrief about details that were not given
  • debrief about what their data will be used for
  • debrief about their right to withhold data
40
Q

How to deal with protection from harm

A
  • given right to withdraw
  • reassured behaviour was normal
  • researcher should provide counselling
41
Q

how to deal with privacy and confidentiality

A
  • personal details must be protected
  • researchers refer to ppt using numbers, initials or false names
  • ppts data must not be shared with other researchers
42
Q

What is a correlation

A

Ilustrates the strengths and direction of an association between two co variables

43
Q

What is a scattergram

A

One co-variable on the x axis and other on the y-axis

44
Q

What are types of correlation

A
  • Positive : co variables increase together
  • Negative : one co variable increases and other decreases
  • Zero : no relationship
45
Q

Why can cause and effect not be demonsttrated in a correlation

A

No manipulation of variables and so cause and effect not demonstrated

46
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of correlations

A

+ measure of how two variables are related so future hypotheses can be suggested
+ it is economical as no need for controlled environment and can use secondary data
- no cause and effect as correlations presented as causal in media when really they only show how 2 variables are related
- another untested variable may explain relationship between co variables so false conclusions

47
Q

What is an observational techniques

A

Way of seeing and listening to what people do without having to ask them

48
Q

What are the types of observational techniques

A

Naturalistic - takes place where target behaviour would occur
Controlled - manipulation of variables
Covert - ppts unaware of being studied
Overt - ppts are aware of being studies
Participant observation - researcher becomes part of group they are studying
Non participant observation - researcher remains separate from group they are studying

49
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation

A

+ high external validity
- low control ober cvs/evs so hard to detect patterns

50
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of controlled

A

+ can be replicated so easier to standardise procedures and findings can be checked to see if they occur again
- low external validity as behaviours may be contrived as a result of the setting

51
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of covert

A

+ reduce demand characteristics
- people may not want behaviour recorded

52
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of overt

A

+ more ethically as ppts given consent
- demand characteristics

53
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of ppt observation

A

+ greater insight as researcher in same situation
- possible loss of objectivity as they may identify too strongly with those they are studying

54
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of non ppt observation

A

+ more objective as they maintain a distance so less chance of bias
- loss of insight as researcher too far removed from those they are studying

55
Q

What are the observational designs

A
  • Behavioural categories - target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories
  • Event sampling - A target behaviour recorded every time it occurs
  • Time sampling - Observations made at regular intervals eg once every 15secs
56
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of behavioural categories

A
  • difficult to make clear and unambigous
  • dumped behaviours go unrecorded –> dustbin categories
57
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of event sampling

A

+ useful for infrequent behaviours as it stills pick up behaciour that do not occur at regular intervals
- complex behaviour oversmiplified affecting validity

58
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of time sampling

A

+ reduces number of observations so more systematic and structured
- unrepresentative as could miss details outside timescale

59
Q

What are the self report techniques

A

Questionnaires - pre set list of written questions to which a ppt responds
Interviews - interaction between interviewer and interviewee

60
Q

What are the types of interviewsq

A

Structured - pre determined questions in a fixed order
Semi - questions but further questions allowed to be asked based on answers
Unstructured - no set questions and interviewee encouraged to elaborate

61
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaries

A

+ distributed easily
+ straightforward to analyse
- responses not truthful
- response bias

62
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews

A

+ easy to replicate as standardised
- interviewers cannot elaborate

63
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured

A

+ flexibility
- increased risk if interviewer bias and allows for unconscious cues

64
Q

What needs to be avoided when designing a questionnaire

A
  • avoid jargon
  • avoid double barreled questions
  • avoid leading questions
65
Q

difference between open and closed questions (Advantages and disadvantages)

A

closed questions means that the respondent has limited choices and date quantitative
+ analysed
- responses restricted so forced unto an answer
open questions are own answers to produce qualitative date
+ more detailed answers
- difficult to analyse

66
Q

how to design interviews

A
  • interview schedule - standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover
  • quiet room - interviewee will open up
  • rapport - neutral questions so ppt is relaxed
  • ethics - treated in confidence
67
Q

Aims of a pilot study

A

Small scale trial run of a research design using a small number of ppts in order to find out if certain things dont work

68
Q

What is qualitative data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

A

Non numerical data expressed in words
+ richness of detail so higher validity
- difficult to analyse as cant make patterns
- researcher bias and subjective interpretation

69
Q

What is quantitative data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

A

Numerical data
+ analysed
- less detail so low validity

70
Q

What is primary data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

A

First hand data collected for purpose of investigation
+ relavent to aims
- time and effor

71
Q

What is secondary data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

A

Collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
+ inexpensive
- outdated

72
Q

What is meta analysis data?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

A

A type of secondary data that involves combining data from a large number of studies
+ increases validity so generalisations can be made
- publication bias so negative results left out

73
Q

What are the measures of central tendency

A

Mean - arithmetic average add up all scores and divide by no of scores
Median - middle value in ascending order
Mode - most frequent or common value

74
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of mean

A

+ sensitive as include all scores
- one large or small number can distort

75
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of median

A

+ only focused on middle so less affected by extreme scores
- extreme values ignored

76
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of mode

A

+ relevant to categorical data
- simple as mode may be at one extreme

77
Q

what are the measures of dispersion

A

range -highest to lowest differnce
standard deviation - average spread round the mean

78
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of range

A

+ easy to calculate
- does not take into account distribution of scores

79
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of SD

A

+ precise as includes all values
- misleading as distorted by extreme values

80
Q

what is normal distribution?

A

most items in middle so bell shaped curve

81
Q

what is skewed distribution

A

distributions that lean to one side or other because items at lower or upper end

82
Q

difference between positive and negativ skew

A

-ve has distribution towards left but posotive to right

83
Q

CHI SQUARED / SIGN TEST

A

chi squared - see the difference between observed and expected

sign test - statistical test of difference that allows a researcher to determine the significance of their investigation when nominal data is present

SEARCH ONLINE

84
Q

What is peer review

A

scrutinised by peers in field for validation, funding and amendements

85
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of peer review

A

+ minimised fraudulent research and increases credibility
- publication bias
- ground breaking research buried as reviewers may be more critical of research that contradicts own view

86
Q

How does psychological research affect the econmoy

A
  • ROLE OF THE FATHER
  • more flexible working arrangement
    DEVELOPMENT OF TREATMENT FOR DISORDERS
  • ACCESS TO DRIGS AND SSRIS
  • MANAGE CONDITIONS AND CONTRIBUTE

psychology (year 1 and 2) (12 decks)

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