Relationships Flashcards
What is sexual selection?
An evolutionary explanation of partner preference and the attributes/behaviour are passed on to increase reproductive success
What is human reproductive behaviour?
Behaviours which relate to any opportunities to reproduce and increase survival chances of our genes
What is anisogamy
Differences between male and female sex cells as male gametes are small, mobile and continuously produced but female cells are larger static and only produced for a few years
What is a consequence of anisogamy ?
No shortage of fertile males but fewer females giving rise to different mating strategies
What is the difference between inter and intra sexual selection
Intersexual selection is between the sexes and the strategies males use to select females and females to select males (QUALITY OVER QUANTITY)
Intra sexual selection is within each sex so strategies between males to be selected (QUANTITY OVER QUALITY)
What is the strategies for intersexual selection?
- Females make a greater investment of time, commitment and other resources during and after the birth of her offspring
- Wrong partner choices are more serious for the female so their optimum strategy is to find a genetically fit partner who can provide resources
What is the sexy son hypothesis and what selection does it relate too?
The genes we see today are those that enhanced reproductive success so a female who mates with a male with a certain characteristic will have sons to inherit this sexy trait so her sons are more likely to be selected by successive generations of females who will mate with her offspring
What are the strategies for intra sexual selection
- There is competition between males to be selected with a female and the winner of the competition reproduces passing on his characteristics
What has intra sexual selection led to ?
Dimorphism where males and females end up looking very different
- Larger males more likely to be chosen
- Females do not compete for reproductive rights so there is no evolutionary drive towards favouring larger females
- In females youthfulness is selected as women are preferred if they have a large waist to hip ratio as it symbolises fertility
What are the behavioural consequences of intra sexual selection
- The characteristics that are favoured are passed on allowing a male to outcompete his rivals including deceitfulness, intelligence and aggression. Males benefit from behaving aggressively as tehy can then acquire fertile females protecting them competing males
a03 sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
- STRENGTH : Support for relationships with intersexual selection
> Clark and hatfield sent male and female students to approach other students and ask “ i have been noticing you around campus, i find you attractive, will you go to bed with me?
> no females agreed but 75% of males did showing that females are choosier and males have evolved a different strategy to ensure reproductive success - STRENGTH : Research support for Intra Sexual Selection
> survey of 10000 adults in 33 countries
> asked questions according to a variety of attributes that evolutionary theory predicts are important in partner preference
> found females placed greater value on resource related characteristics than males did such as good financial prospects and ambition and males valued attractiveness
> reflect consistent sex differences in partner preferences - LIMITATION - social and cultural influences underestimated
> social norms of behaviour have influenced partner preferences
> eg availability of contraception, women greater role in workplace so no longer dependant on men
> women preferences no longer resource orientated
> outcome of evolutionary and cultural influences
What is self disclosure - factors affecting attraction
Revealing personal thoughts to strengthen and develop the romantic bond
What is social penetration theory?
- As they increasingly disclose more and more information about eachother as their trust develops the romantic partners are penetrating more and more into eachothers lives
What are the two elements of self disclosure and what do they represent
Breadth and Depth - Altman and Taylor
1. We disclose alot at the start of a relationship but it is superficial information
2. Breadth is narrow as we don’t want to give too much away that can threaten the relationship
3. Eventually we reveal things more intimate and high risk
What does depenetration mean
This is where dissatsified partners self disclose less as they disengage from the relationship
What is one main factor for disclosure to develop
Reciprocity
a03 self disclosure
STRENGTH : Supported by research
> Sprecher and Hendrick studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self disclosure for both partners
> Men and women who used self disclosure were more satisfied and commited
> sprecher found that relationships are closer when they take turns to self disclose
> increasing validity
COUNTERPOINT
> self disclosure might not cause satisfaction directly
STRENGTH : Real World Application
> increase intimacy and bond
> 57% of homosexual men said that open and honest communication was the only way they deepened their relationships
> psychological insights are helpful in helping people who are having problems in their relationship
LIMITATION : Culutural Differences
> Men and women in individualist cultures self disclose more sexual thoughts than those in indivdualist collectivist cultures
> The levels of satisfaction were no different
> limited ungeneralisable explanation
What is physical attractiveness?
A general agreement about how appealing we find somoeones face
What type of faces do they need to have to be more attractive
Symmetrical and Baby Face
What are the 2 factors/procedures affecting physical attraction
Halo Effect
Matching Hypothesis
What is the halo effect
- This is where we have preconcieved ideas about people who are physically attractive
- Dion et al found that physically attractive people are rated as kind, sociable and good
- This makes them more attractive to us so we behave positively towards them - self fulfilling prophecy
- One distinguishing feature has a disproportionate influence on our judgements of a persons other attributes
What is the matching hypothesis?
Look for partners who is most similar to us in terms of attractiveness
PROCEDURE
- male and female students invited to a dance
- rated for physocal attractiveness by objective observers and completed a questionnaire about themselves
- the computer would decide their partner for their evening
FINDINGS
- hypothesis not supported
- most liked also most physically attractive
- Berscheid et al replicated the study but each ppt selected their partner from varying degrees of attractiveness
- ppt tended to choose partners who matched them in physical attractiveness
CONCLUSIONS
- Seek and choose partners whose attractiveness matches our own attractiveness
- risk rejection
A03 PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
STRENGTH : Physical attractiveness is associated with a halo effect
- palmer and Peterson found physically atractive people were rated as more politically knowledgable
- implications for political process
STRENGTH : Research support for evolutionary processes
- Cunningham found that women who had large cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by white, hispanic men
- Symmetry is similar in all cultures
LIMITATION : The matching hypothesis is not supported by real world application
- online daters found people more attractive than them
- underlining valdiity of matching hypothesis
What is the filter theory?
This is where a series of different factors progressively reduces the range of available romantic partners to a smaller pool of availables
What is the field of availables?
The entire set of potential partners that we could potentially form a relationship with
What is social demography
This is the first level of the filter which refers to a wide range of factors all that influence the chances of potential partners meeting eachother in the first place. This includes geographical location, social class, level of education, religion and thnic group
What does social demography suggest?
- You are more likely to meet people who are physically close to you as this makes most of our interactions memorable and meaningful
- The realistic field is much narrower because our choices are constrained by social circumstances
What is the outcome of social filtering- filter theory
Homogamy - where you are more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially or culturally similar
What is the second level of the filter?
Share our basic values attractive in the earlier stages of the relationship so the SIMILIARITY OF ATTITUDES is important for development only for the couples under 18months
Why is similiarity of attitudes important?- FILTER THEORY
Encourages deeper communication promoting self disclosure
What is the law of attraction
Don byrne says if similarity doesn’t exist it will most likely fizzle out
What is the 3rd level of the filter
Complementarity - similiarity becomes placed by a need for your partner to balance your traits with opposite ones of their own
a03 - filter theory
STRENGTH - Research Support
- Kerkchoff and Davis conducted a longitudinal study where partners in dating couples completed questionnaires to assess similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs
- Relationship closeness was measured 7 months later
- The study found that closeness was associated with similarity of values but only for couples who had been together less than 18 months and after 18months complementarity of needs was important
COUNTERPOINT
- George Levinger pointed out many studies have failed to replicate the original findings of Kerkchoff and Davis
- Due to social changes over time and length of relationship
LIMITATION - Problems with complementarity
- may not be central
- Markey found lesbian couples of equal dominance were most satisfied and they were involved for 41/2 years
- similiarity of needs more important
LIMITATION - Actual vs percieved similiarity
- meta analysis of 313 studies by Montoya
- actual similarity affected attraction only in short term lab based interactions
- in real world relationships percieved is a stronger predictor of attraction
What does social exchange theory mean
A theory of how relationships form and develop, assuming romantic partners act out of self interest in exchanging rewards and costs
how is satisfaction judged? (set)
Rewards - Costs = Profit
what are some rewards and costs (set)
costs
- loss of time or stress
rewards
-sex
- praise
- companionship
What is comparison levels (SET)
The amount of reward you believe you deserve to get developed from social norms and our experiences of previous relationships feeding into the expectations of the current ones
What is the link between CL and Self esteem (SET)
Low CL low self esteem as we will be satisfied with gaining just a small profit as they dont believe they are worth a lot
What is CLalt? (SET)
Comparison levels for alternatives involves considering whether we gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship so we consider alternatives
What does SET predict ?
That we will stay in our current relationship only so long as we believe it is more rewarding than the alternatives
When do the alternatives become more attractive?
When the costs of our current relationships outweigh the rewards
What are the stages of relationship development? - Thibault and Kelly- SET
- SAMPLING STAGE
= Exploring rewards and costs by experimenting in our relationships (not just romantic) and observing others - BARGAINING STAGE
= Marks the begininng of a relationship where romantic partners negotiate and identify what is more profitable - COMMITMENT STAGE
= As time goes on the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen - INSTITUTIONALISATION STAGE
= Partners become settled because the norms of the relationship in terms of rewards and costs are firmly established
a03 - SET
STRENGTH - Support for aspects of SET from research studies
- Kurdek asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete a q’aire measuring relationship and SET variables
- Partners who were most commited percieved the most rewards, fewer costs and alternatives as unnatractive
- main SET concepts individually have an effect
COUNTERPOINT
- ignores Equity
LIMITATION - Dissatsisfaction arises only after a relationship stops being profitable
- become dissatisfied when we conclude costs of relationships outweigh rewards or alternatives more attractive
- Only monitor costs and rewards when become disatisfied
- costs and alternatives caused by dissatisfaction rather than reverse
LIMITATION - SET concepts are vague
- Rewards and costs defined superficially in research
- Rewards and costs subjective
- Unclear what CL and CLalt is
What is equity theory?
An economic theory that criticises SET for ignoring the perception that partners have about whether the distributions of rewards and costs in a relationship is fair
What happens when there is a lack of equity?
One partner overbenefits feeling guilt and shame and the other partner underbenefits feeling anger and hostility
How does negotiations help in equity?
Helps to satisfy relationships that rewards are distributed fairly which involves making trade offs
What is changes in percieved equity?
You may continue to put more into it compared to what you are getting out of it
How do you deal with inequity?
Underbenefitted partner more motivated to restore equity
Underbenefinitted partner will revise perceptions of rewards and costs so relationship feels more equitable even if nothing changes as now the costs eg untidiness is accepted as the norm
a03 - equity theory?
STRENGTH : Studies from real world relationships
- utne carried out a survey of 118 married couples measuring equity with 2 self report scales
- ppts aged between 16 and 45 and were together 2 years before marrying
- couples who considered themself equitable were satisfied
COUNTERPOINT
- Berg found that equity did not increase as predicted by theory, nor found that relationships that ended or continued differed in equity
- self disclosure more important
LIMITATION : Culture bound
- individualist cultures considered their relationship to be most satisfying when equitable
- partners in collectivest cultures were most satisfied when overbenefitting
LIMITATION : Individual differences
- Huseman found people more concerned with norm rather than equity
- some partners benevolents who are prepared to be underbenefitted
- some partners entitleds who believe they deserve to overbenefit without feeling guilt
- less concern about equity
What was rusbuldts big c word which his theory depends on?
COMMITMENT
What factors does commitment depend on? - rusbuldt investment model
Satisfaction
Comparison with alternatives
Investment
What is satisfaction? - rusbuldt investment model
Based on the comparison level and judged by comparing rewards and costs and they are more likely to be satisfied if they are getting more out of the relationship than they expect based on previous experiences
What is comparison with alternatives? - rusbuldt investment model
They look if needs could be better met outside my current relationship and are alternatives more rewarding
What is investment? - rusbuldt investment model (theories of romantic relationships)
Anything we lose if the relationship were to end
What are the two types of investment and examples ?
Intrinsic - Resources we put directly into the relationship eg energy and self disclosure
Extrinsic - Resources that previously did not feature in the relationship but are now associated with it eg mutual friends, children, memories
Satisfaction vs Commitment
Commitment is the main psychological factor with satisfaction a contributory factor, as they have now made an investment that they do not want to lose
What is relationship maintenance mechanisms?- investment model
Accomodation
Willingness to sacrifice
Forgiveness
Positive illusions
Ridiculing alternatives
a03 - rusbuldt investment model
STRENGTH - Support from a meta analysis
- Reviewed 52 studies including 11000 ppts from 5 countries
- Found all 3 factors all predicted relationship commitment
- Relationships where commitment was greatest were the most stable and lastest longest which was true for all couples
HOWEVER
- the studies were correlational do not allow us to conclude that the factors cause commitment in a relationship
- not clear that the model has identified the causes of commitment rather than factors associated
STRENGTHS - explains abusive relationships
- intimate partner violence
- domestically abused women found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner if they had the greatest investments and fewer attractive alternatives
-they were dissatisfied but still committed showing satisfaction is not the only factor
LIMITATION - oversimplifies investment
- More to investment than resources you have already put into a relationship
- Goodfriend extended the original model extended by including future plans
- original model doesnt look at how planning for the future influences commitemnt
Theories of romantic relationships - Ducks phase model - What did duck propose??
The phase model of relationship breakdown which is an explanation of the stages people go through when their relationship is not working and one partner becomes dissatisfied
What are the 4 stages - ducks phase model (name)
- Intra psychic
- Dyadic
- Social
- Grave dressing
What is the first stage in detail and the threshold (ducks phase model)
Intrapsychic
THRESHOLD : “I cant stand this anymore” indicating a determination something has to change
Focus is on cognitive processes where dissatisfied worries about reasons for his or her dissatisfaction privately and evaluate against alternatives
What is the second stage in detail and the threshold (ducks phase model)
Dyadic
Threshold : They eventually come to the conclusion that they would be justified in withdrawing
Focus is on interpersonal processes where there is a series of confrontations characterised by anxiety, hostility and complaints about lack of equity .
They will either repair or break it off and self disclosure increases
What is the third stage in detail and the threshold (ducks phase model)
Social
THRESHOLD : The dissatisfied partner concludes I mean it
Focus is on wider processes
- Break up made public
- Partners tried to seek support and friends choose sides to pick
- Some friends will provide reassurance, some will place blame on other partner or provide secret information
What is the fourth stage in detail and the threshold (ducks phase model)
Grave dressing
THRESHOLD : Its now inevitable
Focus on aftermath
- Spin a favourable story about breakdown so repuation can be upheld and will blame everything or anyone apart form themselves
- Create a personal story you can live with to tidy up memories
Can now start a new life
a03 - ducks phase model
STRENGTH : Real world application
- Suggests ways in which relationship breakdown can be reversed
- Recognises that different repair strategies are more effective
- People in intrapsychic phase could be encouraged to focus worrying on positive aspects of partner
- Feature of dyadic phase is communication whereby improving this can be beneficial in fostering greater stability
- Used in relationship counselling
COUNTERPOINT
- Based on individualists - voluntary whereas collectivists involve wider family
LIMITATION : Incomplete explanation
- duck added a resurrection phase where ex partners apply experiences to future relatinships
- finally processes that occur in relationship breakdown are more important that linear movement from one phase to next
- progression from one phase to the next is inevitable as you can return to an ealier point in the phase
LIMITATION : Early phases less understood
- ppts generally report so not accurate or reliable
- partners can be in intrapsychic stage for a while so recall distorted
What is the reduced cues theory in virtual relationships - social media?
Virtual relationships are less effective than FtF ones because they lack cues we normally depend on such as facial expressions and tone of voice
What is the consequence of reduced cues theory?
Reduces a persons sense of individual identity in virtual relationships which leads to disinhibition so they communicate in aggressive ways
What is the hyper personal model?
This is where self disclosure is greater as once established they are more intense and intimate.
What is the first key feature of hyperpersonal self disclosure in virtual relationships?
- The sender of a message has greater control over what to disclose and the cues they send than they would in ftf - SELECTIVE SELF PRESENTATION
- The sender manipulates their self image to present themself in an idealised way
- To achieve this self disclosure can be hyperhonest or hyperdishonest
What is the second key feature of hyperpersonal self disclosure in virtual relationships?
- Reciever gains a positive impression of the sender so they may give feedback that reinforces senders self presentation
How does anonymity promote self disclosure?
Less people know your identity so you feel less accountable for your behaviour so you disclose more
What is gating?
An obstacle that can interfere with the early development of a relationship
What happens in the absence of gating?
Refocusing attention on self disclosure and away from superficial and distracting features
What is a benefit of gates being absent?
Individual is freed to be more like their true selves
What is a disadvantage of gates being absent?
Scope for people to create untrue identities and decieve people in ways that could never manage FTF
eg they can change their gender, age
a03 : virtual relationships in social media
LIMITATION : online non verbal cues are different rather than absent
- people in online interaction use other cues such as style or timing
- fast or quick timing can highlight intimacy
- nuances in virtual relationships that are just as subtle in ftf
- acronyms, emojis and emoticons can be used as effective substitutes for facial expression and tone of voice
LIMITATION : Lack of support for hyperpersonal model
- Meta analysis was carried out of 25 studies that compared self disclosure in ftf and virtual interactions
-self report showed freq, breadth and depth greater in ftf
- environmental studies showed no differences between ftf and virtual
- contradicts hyperpersonal model that greater intimacy of virtual relationships should lead to deeper self disclosure than in FTF
COUNTERPOINT
- self disclosure online is very honest and doesn’t feature small talk in FTF
STRENGTH : Support for absence of gating
- shy, lonely, anxious people find virtual relationships valuable
- express true selves more than in ftf
- 71% that formed online survived atleast 2 years
- shy people benefit because the gating that obstructs FTF relationships is absent online
What is a parasocial relationship?
Those which are similar to normal relationships but are usually one sided, unreciprocated, and the fan spends time energy and commitement
What are the levels of parasocial relationships and what do they contain?
- ENTERTAINMENT SOCIAL
- least intense
- entertainment
- fuel social interaction - INTENSE PERSONAL
-greater involvement
- obsessive thoughts + feelings - BORDERLINE PATHOLOGICAL
- strongest level
- uncontrollable fantasies
- spending money
What is the absorption addiction model?
Explains parasocial relationships as total preoccupation in a celebs life plus an addictive striving after a stronger involvement.
What is the absorption factor in parasocial relationships?
Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus attention as far as possible on celebrity to become preoccupied and identify with celebrity
What is the addiction factor in parasocial relationships?
Increase dose to gain satisfaction which can lead to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking.
What is the attachment theory explanation in parasocial relationships
How an enduring emotional bond forms between two people that persists over time
BOWLBY
- early difficulties lead to emotional troubles later on
- insecure resistant : parasocial when adults as they have unfulfilled needs met
- Insecure avoidant : avoid pain and rejection
a03 : parasocial relationships
STRENGTH : Research Support
- CAS used to measure level of parasocial relationships
- assess ppts problems
- borderline pathological or intense personal had high anxiety
- models classified into 3 categories which predict actual behaviour
STRENGTH : Link between celeb worship and body image
- addiction absorption suggests a deficiency in a persons life predisposes them to forming parasocial relationships
- Boys and girls aged 14-16 assessed and were interested in girls who reported an intense parasocial relationships with a female celebrities body they admired.
- Contributed to poor body image + e.d
STRENGTH : universal tendency
- compared collectivist and individualistic cultres
- insecure attachment form intense parasocial with tv personalities and characters
- driver for forming parasocial is independeny of cultural influence
