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psychology (year 1 and 2) > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the procedure for coding?

A
  1. Baddeley looked at acoustically and semantically similar and disimilar words
  2. He found recall was worse with acousticaly similar so STM is acoustic
  3. He found recall after 20 mins was worse with semantically similar so LTM is semantic
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1
Q

What is the procedure for capacity?

A

Jacobs (digit span)
1. Researchers read 4 numbers until the ppts could no longer recall
2. Final number = digit spam
3. Ppts could repeat back 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters
Miller (magic number)
1. Miller observed things that come in sevens
2. The span of STM is about 7 items (+/-2) but is increased by chunking

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2
Q

What is the procedure for duration (stm)

A

Peter and Peterson (consonant syllables)

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3
Q

What is the procedure for duration (STM)

A
  1. 24 students were given a trigram to recall and a 3 digit number to recall back from
  2. The retention interval was varied 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds
  3. After 3 seconds recall was 80% but after 18 seconds recall was 3%
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4
Q

Procedure for duration LTM

A
  1. Bahrick et al made americans look at their yearbook photos
    Recognition test - 50 photos from high school yearbooks
    Free recall - Ppts listed names of their graduating class
  2. Recognition - 90% accurate after 15 years and 70% after 48 years
    Free recall - 60% and 30%
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5
Q

EVALUATION - CODING CAPACITY AND DURATION

A

coding : Limitation (baddeley) - He used artificial stimuli
Strength (baddeley ) - Identified two memory stores –> led to development of m.s.m
capacity : Strength ( jacobs ) - The study has been replicated (jacobs study might have had confounding variables)
Limitation (miller) - Overestimates STM capacity ( Cowan concluded STM was 4+/- 1 compared to 5+/2)
duration : Limitation (peterandpeterson) - Meaningless stimuli
Strength (barrack) - High external validity (meaningful stimuli so higher recall)

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6
Q

What is the multi store model?

A

It describes how information flows through the memory system

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7
Q

What is the sensory register?

A

This is where stimuli is taken from the environment and placed into its coding/capacity/duration stores

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8
Q

How do you transfer information from Sensory register to STM?

A

If attention is paid towards it

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9
Q

How do we transfer information from STM TO LTM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal which occurs when we rehearse material so it can pass down to LTM

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10
Q

How do we retrieve information from LTM?

A

Retrieval by transfterring back to STM

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11
Q

A03 EVALUATION - MSM OF MEMORY

A

STRENGTH - Research support showing STM and LTM are different
- Baddeley found we tend to mix up acoustically and semantically similar words so supporting theview we have 2 different memory stores
COUNTER - Meaningless stimuli so msm may not be valid

LIMITATION - Evidence suggesting there is more than one STM store
- kf had amnesia and stm recall was worse when heard them but better when he read them
- separate STM for non verbal sounds

LIMITATION - Prolonged rehearsal not needed for STM and LTM transfer
- craik and watkins argued there are two types of rehearsal (maintenance and eleborative)
- elaborative needed for LTM
- msm doesnt fully explain how Long term storage is achieved

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12
Q

What are the types of long term memory?

A

Episodic : Stores events from our personal experiences, timestamped, need conscious effort to recall them
Semantic : Stores knowledge of the world, not timestamped, less personal
Procedural : Memories of how we do things, automatic, recall without conscious awareness

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13
Q

A03 EVALUATION - TYPES OF LTM

A

STRENGTH : Case study of different types of LTM
- clinical study evidence of amnesia showed both had difficulty recalling events in their past
- semantic memories and procedural memories relatively unaffected
- different memory stores in ltm as one can be damaged but another unaffected

LIMITATION : Conflicting findings about LTM types and brain areas
- Buckner reviewed reserach findings and concluded that semantic is located in left prefrontal and episodic in the right
- Tulving found the reverse
- Challenges neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory

STRENGTH : Helps people with memory loss
- in old age it is specific to episodic as harder to recall recent experiences
- intervention devised for older people targeting episodic –> imprived memory compared to control
- distinguishing between diff types of LTM enables specific treatments

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14
Q

What is the working memory model?

A

This is where it looks at the mental space that is active when we are storing and manipulating information for coding and capacity

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15
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

This monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates subsystems to tasks.
The CE has a limited processing capacity and does not store information

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16
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

This is where it deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which it arrives
Phonological Store - Stores the words you hear
Articulatory Process - Allows maintenance rehearsal

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17
Q

What is the visuospatial sketch pad?

A

This is interested in our visual and spatial sketchpad
Visual cache - Stores visual data
Inner scribe - Records arrangements of objects in visual field

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18
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

It is a temporary store for information, integrating visual and spatial sketchpad, verbal information and time sequencing.
It can be seen as a storage component consisting of 4 chunks
Links working memory to LTM

19
Q

A03 EVALUATION - WORKING MEMORY MODEL

A

STRENGTH : Clinical Evidence Support
- After his brain injury, KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual information normally
- His recall was better when he read the letters
- Phonological loop was damaged and visuo spatial sketchpad intact
- Sepearate visual and acoustic systems
COUNTERPOINT
- unclear if he had any other cognitive systems

LIMITATION : Lack of clarity over CE
- Baddeley said the CE is the least understood
- May consists of separate components
- CE is an unsatisfactory component and challenges integrity

STRENGTH : Dual task performance support
- When Baddeleys pmts carried out visual and verbal their performance was similar to when they carried it out seperately
- When they did visual and visual or verbal and verbal both declined as competing for the same subsystem
- Must be seperate subsystem

20
Q

What is interference and types? (explanation of forgetting)

A

This is where two pieces of information distrupt eachother

Proactive interference : Where an older memory distrupts a newer memory
Retroactive interference : Where an newer memory distrupts an older memory

21
Q

Why is interference worse when memories are similar?

A

This may be due to stored information making it harder for new information to be stored
This could be due to new information overwriting previous memories which are similar

22
Q

What is the study for interference?

A

Mcgeoch and Mcdonald looked at the effects of similarity

  1. Ppts were asked to recall a list of words to 100% accuracy
  2. They were then given a new list to learn and varied to the original
    eg synonyms,atonyms,unrelated, consonant syllables, 3 digit numbers and no new list (control)
  3. Perfromance depended on the nature of second lost
  4. The most similar words produced the worst recall
23
Q

A03 evaluation : interference

A

STRENGTH : Support for real world application
- Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they had played in the season
- Those who played more games had the poorest recall
- Interfernce operates everyday
HOWEVER
- Necessary conditions relatively rare eg similarity of memories
- Could be explained by other theories eg lack of cues

LIMITATION : Interference can be overcome by using cues
- Tvulving and Potska gave ppts lists of words organised into categories
- Recall of 1st list was 70% and fell with new list (interfernce) but when cued recall rose
- Interference is just temporary loss of access to material

STRENGTH : Support from drug studies
- Material learned just before taking diezapam was better than placebo group (retorgrade facilitation)
- Drug stopped new info from reachibg brain areas that process memories so it cant interfere
- Reduce interfernce you can reduce forgetting

24
Q

What is retrieval failure ?

A

This is where there is a lack of cues so you are unable to access memories

25
Q

What is Tulvings principle?

A

The encoding specificity principal suggests that cues help retrrieval if the same ones are present at encoding and retrieval otherwise forgetting can occur
The links may need to be meaningful

26
Q

What are the two types of dependant forgetting?

A

State - recall depends on internal cue (feeling upset/drunk)
Context - recall depends on external cue (weather/place)

27
Q

What is the experiment for context dependant forgetting?

A
  1. sea divers were asked to learn word list and recall
    - learn on land - recall on land
    - learn on land - recall underwater (vice versa)
    - learn underwater - recall underwater

Accuracy was 40% lower in mismatched contexts because of absence of encoded context

28
Q

What is the experiment for state dependant forgetting?

A
  1. ppts learned word lists and had to recall
    - learn on drug - recall on drug
    - learn when on no drug - recall on no drug
    - learn on drug - recall when not on drug (vive versa)

Recall worse when contexts different as there is mismatched cues

29
Q

A03 EVALUATION - Retrieval failure

A

STRENGTH : Real world application
- people go in one room and forget what they want but remember when they go back to original room
- make the effort to recall the environment in which you learned it first
- strategies we can use to improve recall

STRENGTH : impressive range of supporting evidence
- both dependent experiments show the lack of cues at recall lead to everyday forgetting
- Eysenck and Keane argue that retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting in ltm
- evidence suggests rf occurs everyday even in labs

LIMITATION : context effects vary in recall and recognition
- Godden replicated underwater experiment using recognition instead of recall
- No contexct dependent effect, findings were the same whether contexts for learning and recall matched or not
- Suggest rf is a limited explanation as only applies when a person has to recall rather than recognise

30
Q

What is a leading question (ewt misleading info)

A

This is where a questions phrasing can suggest a certain answer

31
Q

What is loftus and palmers experiment (leading questions)

A
  1. 45 students watched film clipsof car accidents and answered questions about speed ‘ how fast were the cars going when they HIT eachother’
  2. 5 groups of ppts were given a different verb eg hit, contact, bumped, collided, smashed
  3. Contacted produced a mean spead of 31.8 but smashed priduced a speed of 40.5
32
Q

What are the 2 factors that affect leading questions affect EWT ?

A
  1. Response Bias explanation : wording of a question has no effect on ewt memory but influences answer given
  2. Substitute explanation : Wording interferes with original memory distorting accuracy
33
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

Witnessed discuss what they have experienced which could affect accuracy of recall

34
Q

What is the experiment for post event discussion?

A
  1. Paired ppts watched a video of the same crime but filmed so one could see something the other could not
  2. Both ppts discussed what they had seen before completing a test of recall
  3. 71% wrongly recalled aspects of event they did not see but heard

Evidence of memory conformity

35
Q

Why does post event information affect EWT? (2 factors)

A

Memory contamination : When co witnesses discuss a crime they mix information from other witnesses with their own memories

Memory conformity : Witnesses go along with eachother to win social approval

36
Q

A03 EVALUATION : Misleading information

A

STRENGTH : Real world application in Justice system
- Consequences of innacurate ewt as witnesses could distort memory
- psychologists are expert witnesses in trials to explain limits of ewt
- prevent faulty conviction
HOWEVER
- Loftus and palmer showed film clips so there is less stress so reserachers may be too pessimistic

LIMITATION : Substituion explanation has evidence challenging it
- Sutherland found ppts recalled central details better than peripheral even when asked misleading questions
- Attention focuses in central features and resistant to misleading info
- Original memory survived

LIMITATION : Evidence does not support memory conformity
- Skagerberg ppts discussed film clips of mugger ( one version had dark brown other had light)
- PPts recalled a blend from what they seen and heard rather than one or ther other
- Memory distorted through contamination by post event and not result of memory conformity

37
Q

What is the weapon focus effect?

A

Where attention is focused on the weapon leaving less attention for other details

38
Q

What is Johnson and Scotts study?

A
  1. Low anxiety condition - man walked with pen covered in grease
  2. High anxiety condition - heated argument and sound of breaking glass and then a man walked through holding a knife covered in blood

Ppts were later asked to pick the man from a set of 50 photographs

49% of ppts in low anxiety condition and 33% of high anxiety ppts were able to identify the man

TUNNEL THEORY : enhanced memory for central events

39
Q

What is yuille and Cutshal experiment (anxiety positive effect)

A
  1. A gun shop owner shot a thief dead
  2. Ppts were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident and was compared to the police interviews at the time of the shooting
  3. Witnesses rated how stressed they felt at the time of the incident
  4. Witmesses were very accurate and little change after 5 months
  5. Ppts who reported highest levels of stress were most accurate (88%compared to 75% for low stress)
40
Q

How to explain the contradictory findings?

A
  1. Inverted u theory : Yerkes and Dodson argue that a relationship between performance and arousal is an inverted u (increase with stress to a certain point)
    This explains how both high and low levels of anxiety can produce poor recall but optimum levels lead to good recall
41
Q

A03 EVALUATION : ewt Anxiety

A

LIMITATION : Anxiety may not be relevant to weapon focus
- Johnson and Scott ppts may have focused on the weapon due to being surprised
- Pickel found accuracy in identifying the criminal was poorest when object in hand was unexpected
- Weapon focus due to unusualness

STRENGTH : Supporting evidence for (-ve effects)
- Valentine and mesout used heart rate to divide visitors to London dungeona into low and highanxity groups
-High anxirty were kess accurate in describing the target person
- Anxirty has a (-ve) effect on immediate ewt

STRENGTH : Supporting evidence for (+ve) effects
- Christianson interviewed wintnesses to bank robberies, the direct witnesses were high anxiety and bystanders low
- 75% more accurate across akk
- anxiety can enhance

42
Q

What is the cognitive interview?This is how to improve EWT

A

This is how to improve EWT

  1. Report everything : Every detail to trigger memories
  2. Reinstate the context : Returns to crime scene in their mind to imagine environment and emotions
  3. Reverse the order : Recalled in different order to stop basing it off expectations and prevent dishonesty
  4. Change perspective : Recall from other views to prevent influence of expectations and scheme on recall
43
Q

What is the enhanced ci

A

Focus on social dynamics
- eye contact
- minimise distractions
- speak slower
- open ended questions

44
Q

ao3 - ewt cognitive interview

A

strength : reserach support
- meta analysis combined data comparing ci and eco
- ci produced 41%C more than standard interview
- ci effective in helping witnesses recall information
however
- increase in amount of inaccurate information esp in eco
- need to be careful about how they treat ewt evidence

limitation : some elements of ci more effective than others
- milne and bull found each individual technique of ci alone produced more info than standard police interview
- found that combining report and reinstante produced bettwe recall
- casts doubt on credibility of overall CI

limitation : ci is time consuming
- more time than standard
- special traning
- not realistic

psychology (year 1 and 2) (12 decks)

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