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Psychology A-level > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

main methods

A
  • experiments
  • observation
  • self-report
  • correlations
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2
Q

other methods

A
  • meta analysis
  • case studies
  • content analysis
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3
Q

introduction

experiments

A
  • main methods
  • allows mesurement of one variable or another
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4
Q

introduction

IV

A

change
(ndependant ppl can change)

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5
Q

DV

A

mesure

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6
Q

introduction

observation

A
  • aim is to watch the behaviour without manipulation
  • removes bias and increases validity as this is their natural behaviour
  • e.g. watching cctv cameras, two sided mirror
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7
Q

introduction

self- report

A
  • questionares
  • interviews
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8
Q

introduction

correlation

A

(most forgotten)
- rather than seeing jwo one variable affects the other we see if two variables are associated
- e.g. do students who study longer get better gradees
- scatter graph/gram used

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9
Q

meaning

reliable

A

consistencey

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10
Q

meaning

vaild

A

accuracy

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11
Q

direcrtional

A

when the direction of the difference has

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12
Q

non-directional

A

when the direction of the difference has

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13
Q

3 criteria for obseration

A

covert/overt
non/ppt
control/natural

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14
Q

natural

A

watching and recordng behaviour in setting where it would naturally occur e.g. nature documentary
+less demand characteristics and socai desirability
+ high ecological validity
- cant control extraneous variables
- hard to replicate, unreliable?

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15
Q

controlled

A

watching and recording behavir within a structured envroment where variables controled e.g. zimbardo
+ can control extraneous variables
+ easier to replicate, reliable
- demand ch, social d

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16
Q

overt

A

watching and recording when ppts know they are bieng watched e.g. cctv
+ less ethical issues
- higher chance of ppt reactvity

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17
Q

covert

A

observing and recorning without ppts nowledge e.g. hidden cameras, tea room trade
+high ecological validity
- ethical issues
- psychological harm, anxiety

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18
Q

ppt

A

when researcher disguses themselves into the group they are oserving e.g. jake perulta
+increased insight
+may increase validity
- subjectivity
- deception

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19
Q

non ppt

A

when researcher remains outside of the group they are watching e.g. invidulator
+more objective
- may miss out on valuable insgight

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20
Q

observational desgign

unstructured

A

when reseracher records everything they see
+qualitative
- hard o may attention to everything

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21
Q

Behavioural categories

A

when a target behaviour is broken into components that are observable and measurable and specific
e.g. leaving the room, laughing

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22
Q

practice behavioural categories

anger

A

shouting
clenched fists
arched eyebrows

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23
Q

practice behavioural categories

affection

A

smiling
hugging
holding hands

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24
Q

observational design

sampling methods

A

refers to how often data is recorded, not how ppts are selected

event
time

intervals in time sampling refer to the tine between observations not te

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25
Q

sampling method

event sampling

A

counting the number of times a particular event occours

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26
Q

sampling method

time sampling

A

recornig behaviour within a pre-established time frame e.g. every 30 seconds

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27
Q

Inter-oserver reliability

A

this is when 2 or more observers make consistent judgment about the data they recorded
1. carry out pilot study using behavioural categories
2. collect observed data from both observations (independantly)
3. check for a correlation between the two sets of data
4. is there’s a strong correlation theer is a high inter observer reliability

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28
Q

A03

structured

A

quantitative
numerical results, less detail, easy to compare

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29
Q

A03

non structured

A

qualitative data
more detail, observer bias

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30
Q

A03

behavioural categories

A

+structured, less open to interpretation
findings are more objective
- overlapping categories e.g. offensive language, sweraing
- dustbin categories
- missed out categories

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31
Q

A03

event sampling

A

+useful when the target behaviour is infrequent
- we may overlook other important information if we are too focued on one e.g. fixated on one child in play ground

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32
Q

A03

Time sampling

A

+less observations need to be made so less overwhelming, fresh eyes, qyicker analysis
- we may miss important events during the intervals so data doesnt have high internal validity

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33
Q

Pilot study

A
  • a small-scale trail run of the investigation
  • the study is initially conducted with a small sample to check that the procedure & materials are appropriate
  • this is also done with TV shows

+ gives us oppurtunity to improve the study
+ ensures that study runs smoothly
+ saves us time, money and effort

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34
Q

stats we use to describe trends/ patterns and differences in data

A
  • moCT: mean, median,mode
  • measures of dispersion: range, IQR
  • reading & interpreting graphs, tables, bar, line
  • graphical displays
  • dispersion
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35
Q

Distribution

A

the dpread of frequency data for a particular variable (how data is distributed)
types: normal/skewed (positively or negitively)

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36
Q

why look at distribution

A
  • tells us about the frequency data for a particular variable across a particular population
  • it can show differences across populations and is used to identify statistics infrequently
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37
Q

Distributions

what i need to know

A
  • definition of each type
  • how to draw a distribution using moct
  • interpreting distribution based on measures of centeral tendancies, may include describing how the distribution may be skewed, or comparing distributons from different data sets
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38
Q

Normal distribution

A

a symetrical spread of frequency that forms a bell-shaped curve. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest part if teh curve
[see physical card]

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39
Q

Skewed distribution

A

a spread of frequencey data that is not symmetrical, where data clusters to one end

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40
Q

Explain why the psychologist did a pilot study

A

To test whereter ppts understand standerdised intructions, timing, so they can make adjustments before the real study to save time and money

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41
Q

Discriptive statistics

A

the use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to analyse trends and sets of data
- measures of centeral tendancies
- measures of dispersion

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42
Q

measures of centeral tendancies

A

the general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

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43
Q

measures of dispersion

A

how far scores vary and differ from one another (the spread of scores)

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44
Q

the measures

A

CT- mean
- mode
- median

D- range
- standard deviation

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45
Q

mean

A

the arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and diving by the number of valuses there are

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46
Q

median

A

the centeral value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest

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47
Q

Experimental design

A
  • the different ways in which the testing of ppts can be organised in relation to experimental conditions
    e.g. independant groups, repeated measures, matched pair
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48
Q

Independant groups

A

ppts are allocated to different groups wjere each group represnets one condition
- when having more than 1 group we usually have an experimental condition and a controlled condition
- ppts will be split and accolated to one of the two groups
- this mean that all ppts only experience one condition each
- scores/behaviour from each group will then be compared
- mean+compare

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49
Q

Repeated measures design

A

all ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment
- will this design we still have an experimental and control condition
- howerever ppts will take part in all conditions one at a time
- we usually use this meathod to test before/after

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50
Q

experimental desgin

controls

A

randomisation
standerdisation
counterbalancing

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51
Q

single blind procedures

A

when ppts are unware of what condition/group they’re in

prevents demand characteristics

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52
Q

double blind procedures

A

when both participants and researchers are unaware of what condition/ group theyre in

prevents investigator effects

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53
Q

controls

Randomisation

A

the use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions
- this is different from random allocation

random allocation only refers to randomly assigning

ppts to thier conditions/groups

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54
Q

what should we randomise in an experiment?

A
  • alphabetical order
  • difficulty of words
  • meaning of words

this controls demand characteristics and investigator effects

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55
Q

Standerdisation

A

using exactly the same formulised procedures and instructions for all ppts in a research study
- if conditions arent the same for all ppts they may have different experiences, unreliable
- also controls for investigator effects
- e.g. task indtructions, word lists

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56
Q

Counterbalancing

A

when ppts in a repeated measues design are split into half with half ppts completeing conditions in reverse order
- we use this control when we have a repeated measures desgin
- aims to prevent the main confounding variable that we may come across using this design

57
Q
A
57
Q

Explain how to counterbalance

A
  • split ppts into 2 groups
  • get the 1st group to complete the conditions in one order
  • get second group to do conditions in opposite order
  • put the data together and compare each condition (not each group)
58
Q

Range and standard deviation

A

both measure the spread of data- standard deviation is just a more sophisticated measure

Rule:
bigger the standard deviation value, the wider the spread of data, more variation in scores/data

smaller the standard deviation value, the closer the spread of data, less variation in scores/data, roughly the same level, less varriation

59
Q
A
60
Q

quantitative

A

data that can be counted, usually given as nmbers
e.g. scores on test
can be analysed statistically and converted into graphs/ charts

61
Q

qualitative

A

data that is expressed in words and non-numerical
e.g. interviews, diary, observation notes
- it may be converted into quantitative later on for further analysis

62
Q

evaluation

qualitative

A

+ richness of detail
+ allows ppts to give thoughts and opinions
+ data tends to be more meaningful
+ high validity
- can be difficult to analayse/ compare
- hard to find trends and patterns
- analysed under subjective interpritaion
- may lead to researcher bias, low internal validity

63
Q

evaluation

quantitative

A

+less subjective
+ easier to analyse
+ conclusions cab be drawn quicker
- may include less detail
- may not fully represent real life/behaviour, lacking external validity

64
Q

Presenation of quantitative data

A
  • tables: usually display the mean and SD for each group
  • bar charts: graphs that show the frequencey of each variable represented by the height of bars
  • scattergraphs: graphs that represent the strength/ direction of a relationship between co variables
65
Q

How to draw a graph

A
  1. labled axis (opperationalised)
  2. descriptive title
  3. labled y axis
  4. correctly plotted data (bar with gaps)
66
Q

Bar charts vs Histograms

A

bar: categorical data e.g. class A vs class B, tall vs short
histograms: bars are connected as data runs on continups scale

67
Q

extraneous variable

A

any variable that has potential to affect the DV
ppt/situational varbles- affect the person/setting

68
Q

confounding

A

any varable that affects only one group/ condition in a study- they vary systematically whin the IV

69
Q

ppt variables

examples

A

fatigue
knowledge of task
energy
concentartion
mood

70
Q

situational variables

examples

A

temp of room
disctracions
noise outside
comfort

71
Q

confounding variables

A

extranous variable that only affects one group e.g. y7’s watching a movie when observing if y9/y7 has better concentration levels

72
Q

Investigator effects

A

anything that a reserahcer may say or do (consciously or subconsiouly) that may influence the behaviour from a ppt
e.g. researchers movment, tone of voice

73
Q
A
74
Q

social desirability

A
  • when ppt changes nehaviour in order to be favoured by others
  • if true answer is taboo/ embarassing you may chnage it to avoid judgment
75
Q

demand characteristics

A

when teh ppt changes thier behaviour de to guessing the aim of the study

76
Q

Leading questions

A

“what do you think about Rishi Sunak?”
“what do you think about our so-called PM Rishi Sunak?”
no longer testing what we aim, low internal validity

77
Q

when is it suitable to carry out a case stdy rather than an experiment

A
  • get more qualitative data
  • in depth
  • specific senarios
  • historical conext
  • things that arent observable/opperationolised
78
Q

case study

A

an in depth, detailed investigationor a small group (victim to the same event)
they use a wide variety of techniques including retrospective data, interviews, observations an psychological testing
they are usually longitudinal (long piecses of reserach) and are carrried out over a long time period

79
Q

evaluation

case studies

strengths

A

+in depth, more qualitative data, high explanatory power
can dis/prove theories, theoretical value
+richer in detail, can explore sensitive topics
can provide direction for new hypothesisies, practical value

80
Q

evaluation

case studies

weaknesses

A
  • low generalisibility, looks at one person, small sample, low population validity
  • retrospective data - may be issues such at data may be outdtated and not useful to modern day
  • must rely on self-report- social desirability/ poor memory, innacurate, low internal validity
  • subjective, bias, investigator effects, researchers may only look into areas they are interested in, low internal validity
  • ethical issues, breach of confientally e.g. uisng their real name psychology harm - acessing trauma
81
Q

types of experiments

lab

A

when reseraher manipulates an IV to test its effect on the DV
e.g. skinner, bandura

82
Q

types of experiments

field

A

when reseraher manipulates an IV to test its effect on the DV in a natural setting
e.g. bus, park

83
Q

evaluation

Natural

A

rely on natral events, so control is limited
the events are real (IV) effects are real, can be sure the Dv is natural, high ecological validity

the events are ratre so you cant check for reliability, no replication

lots of extraneous variables we cannot control, low internal validity

84
Q

evaluation

Quasi

A

+high control (just like lab), high interanl validity

  • we cannot control group allocation
  • if the IV is within ppts we cannot control how we seperate them into groups- there way of existing differences between our groups(other than IV) that affect our stdy
  • these are confounding variables
85
Q

weakness of quasi and natural

A

neither method allows us to establish cause and effect
- the purpose of an experminet is to measure the effect that one varable has on another
- due to lack of control we can never trule know whether it is in fact the IV that changes the DV (it could be the other extranous varibles), this lowers the internal validity

86
Q

evaluation

Lab

A

+high control, minimise extraneous variables, high internal validity
+ easy tp replicate, reliable
+less likely to have ethical issues
- lacks ecological validity, artificl task/setting doenst reflect real life

87
Q

evaluation

Field

A
  • low control, extranous variables low internal validity
  • harder to replicate, real life is unpredictable
  • ethical issues more likely to arise, informded ocnsent, right to withdraw, deception, goes agaisnt BPS guidlenes
    + high ecological valueu, ppts are more likely to behave natually, natral setting/task, reflect real life
88
Q

Natral experiment

A

when change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher (natutrally occuring event)
they just record the effect of teh DV
e.g. number of stdents that applied beofre the fees tripled
how may flights wre ebook ed to ukraine before/after war

89
Q

Quasi

A

when teh Iv pre-exists within ppts and has not been determned by anyone, techinally not a real experiment, no manipukation
e.g. different testosterone levels in males and femals
something thats fixed, IQ

90
Q
A
91
Q

open questions

A

qualitative data
no fixed response
detailed

92
Q

closed questions

A

“yes or no” answers

93
Q

Content analysis

A

A research technique that enables the indirect study or behaviour by examining visual written or verbal material

The indirect study or behaviour by examining visual written or verbal material

94
Q

Content analysis

A

A research technique that enables the indirect study or behaviour by examining visual written or verbal material

The indirect study or behaviour by examining visual written or verbal material

95
Q

Content analysis steps

A

1 choosing a sampling method (time/event sampling)
2 coding the data(using behavioural categories)
3 choosing a method of data representation(qualitative quantitative)

96
Q

Content analysis steps

A

1 choosing a sampling method (time/event sampling)
2 coding the data(using behavioural categories)
3 choosing a method of data representation(qualitative quantitative)

97
Q

Coding

A

1 choosing a sampling method (time/event sampling)
2 coding the data(using behavioural categories)
3 choosing a method of data representation(qualitative quantitative)

98
Q
  1. Choosing sampling method content analysis
A

Time or event sampling
Depending on the material you analysing you will choose to either tally the chosen behaviour/ code within timed intervals
E.g. Written material.-event sampling
E.g. speech./film -time sampling

99
Q
  1. Coding (content analysis)
A

Decide on specific behaviours/codes you wish to focus on the content analysis
E,g, for an episode of The Simpsons you may choose behaviours that represents aggression such as shouting hitting insulting language
For speech from the prime minister, you may choose words like I us we
Then you are ready to carry out the contents analysis

100
Q
  1. Data representation
A

Qualitative or quantitative?
Displaying data with qualitative method:
-Group together commonly used phrasing(verbal aggression)
-Simplifying observations by putting them into categories e.g. Physical verbal.

Displaying data with quantitative method:
-Bar chart-compare behaviours
-Pie chart-show proportions

Finish content analysis by concluding data found

101
Q

Content analysis RELIABILITY (often forgotten in exam)

A

INTER RATER RELIABILITY don’t say observer
Qualitative or quantitative?
Displaying data with qualitative method:
-Group together commonly used phrasing(verbal aggression)
-Simplifying observations by putting them into categories e.g. Physical verbal.

Displaying data with quantitative method:
-Bar chart-compare behaviours
-Pie chart-show proportions

Finish content analysis by concluding data found

102
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Qualitative or quantitative?
Displaying data with qualitative method:
-Group together commonly used phrasing(verbal aggression)
-Simplifying observations by putting them into categories e.g. Physical verbal.

Displaying data with quantitative method:
-Bar chart-compare behaviours
-Pie chart-show proportions

Finish content analysis by concluding data found

103
Q

Strengths of content and thematic analysis

A

Qualitative or quantitative?
Displaying data with qualitative method:
-Group together commonly used phrasing(verbal aggression)
-Simplifying observations by putting them into categories e.g. Physical verbal.

Displaying data with quantitative method:
-Bar chart-compare behaviours
-Pie chart-show proportions

Finish content analysis by concluding data found

104
Q

Weaknesses of content and thematic analysis

A

Qualitative or quantitative?
Displaying data with qualitative method:
-Group together commonly used phrasing(verbal aggression)
-Simplifying observations by putting them into categories e.g. Physical verbal.

Displaying data with quantitative method:
-Bar chart-compare behaviours
-Pie chart-show proportions

Finish content analysis by concluding data found

105
Q

Falsifiability

A

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being untrue

Karl popper - a philosopher who insisted that a theory must be falsifiable to be deemed as scientific

106
Q

The theory of falsifiability

A

even if a theory has been tested multiple times this doesn’t mean it’s true, it just haven’t been proven false yet

E.g. proving th earth is flat by disproving

118 elements is a fact, this changes when people find another element

Falsifiabile theories are therefore the strongest as they have not yet been disproven, despite efforts

E.g. be,I’veing there are only white seamen will be disproven when yous et a black swan

107
Q

Paradigms

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within the scientific discipline
Thomas Kuhn -a paradigm separates scientific discipline from non-scientific discipline
He suggested that social sciences were seen as ‘pre-sciences’ had a universally accepted paradigm
Psychology has too much internal disagreement such as conflicting approaches issues in debates, unlike biology (evolution) and physics (universe) gravity
He said that the progress within a particular science occurs when there’s a scientific revolution-the result of this is known as a paradigm shift

108
Q

Paradigm shift

A

A result of scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory with a scientific discipline

1 a handful of research made begin to question the accepted paradigm
2 begins together popularity and pace
3 eventually there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore and a paradigm shift occurs

Relevance/importance in science to shift from one parody to another

109
Q

Example of paradigm shifts in psychology

A

Approaches

110
Q

THEORY

A

T theory construction
H hypothesis testing
E emoicrcal methods
O objectivity
R replicanikity
Y!

111
Q

For exam (features of science )

A
  • define each term
  • identify examples of each feature
  • discuss why the feature is important (for science)
112
Q

T theory construction

A

A theory is a set of general laws and principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.
Construction caused by gathering evidence via direct observation
Psychological theories provide understanding by explaining regularities in behaviour
Theories can develop via an inductive or deductive model
Inductive(hypothesis testing leading to theory)
Deductive(theory to hypothesis testing)

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Q

T theory construction

A

A theory is a set of general laws and principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.
Construction caused by gathering evidence via direct observation
Psychological theories provide understanding by explaining regularities in behaviour
Theories can develop via an inductive or deductive model
Inductive(hypothesis testing leading to theory)
Deductive(theory to hypothesis testing)

114
Q

Inductive

A

Hypothesis testing leads to theory

E,g. Milgram and asch

115
Q

Deductive

A

Theory leading to hypothesis testing

E.g. 44 thieves affectionless psychopathy

116
Q

Hypothesis testing

A

This is when the validity of a theory is tested - theories are then used as findings

  • a good theory must be able to generate testable expectations

E.g. of a theory that hasn’t : friends psychosexual stages, role of defence mechanisms

117
Q

Empiricism

A

When information is gathered via direct observation and experiment, unfounded beliefs
“ I will believe it when I see it”

Arguing that something exists is no longer enough to be deemed as scientific- there must be concrete(empirical) evidence to support claims

E.g. Of empirical Evidence
skinners rats Pablo’s dogs

118
Q

Objectivity

A

when all sources of personal bias are minimised to not distort/ influence research process

Objectivity is the bias of empirical methods
Researchers must stay out the critical distance from their research to ensure that expectations don’t affect the research
this can be done by not involving yourself in the testing/ research avoiding investigator effects
methods must be carefully controlled to ensure highest levels of objectivity e.g. reduce extremely variables
higher level of the validity

119
Q

Replicability

A

the extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by another researcher

If a scientific theories to be trusted it’s findings must be repeatable across the number of different contexts and circumstances, this makes the findings more reliable
replication can also determine the validity of a theory, replication can strengthen the reliability of findings as well as the validity of theories leading to credibility

120
Q

Reliability

A

Consistent methods/ results. and measuring devices said to be reliable; it produces consistent results every time it’s used

E.g. scale stop watch ruler, concrete measures

but in psychology can we be sure that the abstract measures are reliable? psychological tests and questioares

121
Q

Method to improve reliability

A

Test-retest reliability

122
Q

Test - retest reliabiltiy

A

A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person or group on two separate occasions
if the measure produces the same answers as the second round it’s considered reliable
E.g. IQ tests you’re a q should be the same today as it is next week
there must be enough time between your first and second test( Memory)
Scores from the first and second test are then correlated to check for similarity- looking for positive correlation

123
Q

Results: Inter-observer reliability

A

The extent which there is agreement between two more researchers involved in observing measuring behavior
avoids bias and subjectivity
researchers generally were an pilot study to test their behavioral categories/ variables/ questionnaires before the real thing
data sets are then correlated to check similarity- the correlation coefficient must be higher than 0.8 for the data to have high interobserver reliability

124
Q

Test retest reliability steps

A

1Give participants the test/ questioner and collects the data
2 give the same participants the same test/ questioner on a later occasion and collect the data
3compare the data collective from each participant on both occasions
4look for correlation between the scores if the correlation is higher than 0.8 the test/ questioner has high test retest reliability

125
Q

Interobserver reliability steps

A
  1. Run a pilot study and have the researcher measuring/ observing the same thing e.g. behavioral categories
  2. collect data from the researcher and compare
  3. Check correlation between the sets of data
  4. If there is a correlation of 0.8 there is a high inter rater reliability
126
Q

Ways of improving reliability

A

Questionnaires : closed questions, jargon,leading questions

Interviews: training, no leading questions, structured interviews

Experiments: control variables (lab experiment) more replication, standardised conditions

Observations: operationalise behavioural categories

127
Q

Assessing and improving accracey

A

How accurate the findings or measuring devices are( are we measuring what we think we’re measuring)

128
Q

Types of validty

A

internal, ecological, historical, population

129
Q

Assessing validity

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Face validity, concurrent valdity

130
Q

Internal validity

A

Refers to whether the observed effects of our dependent variable is due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not anything else

  • social desirability, extraneous variables, demand characteristics, investigator effects, researcher bias, confounding variables
131
Q

External validity

A

the extent to which findings from a study are accurate outside the study

132
Q

Ecological validty

A

the extent to which findings from artificial study are generalisable to other settings

high: bickmans obedience
low: asch, lab experiments, baddley deep sea divers

133
Q

Historical validity

A

the extent to which findings are generalizable to present day

high: lorenz, imprinting, biological suff
low: asch, jacob’s digit span test

134
Q

Population validity

A

the extent to which finding from the sample are generalisable to the target population

high: zumroos meta analysis
low: little albert/ hans

135
Q

Face validity

A

Extent to which measure looks like what it claims to measure
If the item looks like it measures what it claims to measure then we can see it has Faith validity

E.g. items on a IQ tests have face validity

136
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Establishing Liberty by comparing your measure to an existing measure
To assess validity we can compare measure to already established validated measure
if we items on the measure of various similar/ much the items on the validated test then your measure has concurrent validity
in addition if the result from your measure are very similar/ much the results you yielded from the establishment nature then your measure has concurrent validity
E.g. if someone completes a validated IQ test they should get similar results on our test

137
Q

Improving validity

A

Experiments
Internal: better experimental design e.g. matched pairs instead of repeated measures) lab setting high control

External: field instead of lab method, representative stratified sample

Questions
face validity, change questions to make them relevant
concurrent valdirty, remove questions

138
Q
A

Psychology A-level (6 decks)

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