Psychopathology

Question 1

Psychopathology

definition

Answer 1

the study of the psychological disorders

Question 2

4 main definitions of abnormality

Answer 2

• statistical infrequency
• devitaion from social norms
• faliure to function adequately
• deviation from ideal mental health

Question 3

Statistical infrequency

Answer 3

occours when an individual has a less common characteristic in comparison to the poplation. A normal distribution allows us to observe what is usual behaviour - we refer to this as ‘normal’ Anything that is statistically infrequent (when less people experience it) is considered abnormal

Question 4

Deviation from social norms

Answer 4

Conserns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society social norms involve making a collectictive judgment about what is right. Social norms are specific to the culture we live in, so what is abnormal is difficult to judge universally e.g. homosexuality is considred abnormal in some societies
According to DSM-V a key symptom is ‘absence’ of prosocial interanl standards aassociated with faliure to perform to lawful or culturally normative ethical behaviour

Question 5

Faliure to function Adequately

Answer 5

occours when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living e.g. poor ntrition, hygiene, inability to maintain a job/ relationship. dysfunction also includes observer discomfort
Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) signs of not coping with severe personal distress irrational or dangerous behaviour, lack of conformity to interpersonal rules e.g. personal space e.g. intellectual disability disorder as well as an abnormal IQ failure to function is usually also needed for a diagnosis

Question 6

Biological explanations for OCD

Answer 6

Genetic and neural explanations

Question 7

Genetic influences

Answer 7

characteristics that are inherited

Question 8

Neural explanations

Answer 8

how the nervous systems function

Question 9

Brain structure

Answer 9

physical dimensions in the brain

Question 10

Genetic explanation

Answer 10

• genes make up chromosones and consist of DNA which codes the physical and psychological features of an organism
• genes inherited (transmitted from parents to offspring)
• some mental disorders have a stronger biological component than others - OCD has one of the strongest
• genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD

Evidence: Lewis

Question 10

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 10

According to the diathesis-stress model, genes may leave someone more more likely to develop OCD but an environmental stressor is needed to trigger the condition.

vulnerability (genetic) stressor/ triggered (enviroment)

Question 11

Candidate genes

Answer 11

specific genes that had been identified that create a vulnerability for OCD

some of which have been found to be involved in regulating the development of serotonin

e.g. the SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin creating lower levels of serotonin linked with the occourence of OCD

Question 12

serotonin

Answer 12

neuroransmitter that regulates mood

Question 13

polygenic

Answer 13

refers to something that is not caused by one single gene but several genes are invloved

OCD is polygenic - 230

Question 14

different types of OCD

Answer 14

one group of genes may cause OCD in one person

Question 15

biological treatment: drug therapy

Answer 15

chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or some other body systems
- in psychological disorders, such drugs affect neurotransmitter levels

increasing/ decreasing neurotransmitter levels aims to increase/ decrease activity in the brain

that then affects our processing and behaviour

OCD is associated with low levels of serotonin therefore drugs worn to increase the level of serotonin in the brain

Question 16

What usually happens in a serotonin system

Answer 16

• serotonin is released from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another neuron ( postsynaptic neuron)
• to reach the postsynaptic neuron, serotonin must travel across a synapse ( the gap between 2 neurons) - some serotonin successfully travels to the post synaptic neuron
• consequently the excess serotonin is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron (to break down and re-use)

Question 17

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Answer 17

• reuptake inhibitor = inhibits (prevents) the reuptake (reabsorption) of selective serotonin neurotransmitters (selective meaning not all serotonin)
• SSRIs are a type of anti-depressant that works on the serotonin systems in the brain

Question 18

What do SSRIs do?

Answer 18

SSRIs prevent the breakdown and reabsorption of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron
SSRIs block the site where reabsorption takes place, leaving excess serotonin in the synapse
however chemicals cannot stay in the synapse - they must move into a neuron
serotonin then has no choice but to move in the post synaptic neuron
this means that there is more serotonin than usual travelling from one neuron to the next increasing the overall amount of seratonin in the brain
doesn’t add serotonin, blocks uptake

Question 19

Behavioural treatments phobias

Answer 19

Behaviours adopt the concept of classical conditioning to treat phobias
As phobias are limited by associating a neutral stimulus with a feared unconditioned stimulus, phobias can be treated by removing/replacing this association

Question 20

Behavioural treatments for phobias

Answer 20

Behaviours adopt the concept of classical conditioning to treat phobias
As phobias are limited by associating a neutral stimulus with a feared unconditioned stimulus, phobias can be treated by removing/replacing this association

Question 21

Systematic Desensitisation

Answer 21

A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response such as anxiety to a stimulus. It does this gradually using principles of classical conditioning
In simple terms, if the individual can lead to relax in the presence of a phobic stimulus they will be cured
Essentially a new response to the stimulus is learned (relaxation instead of anxiety) this is called counter -conditioning)
It’s impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one emotion prevents the other
This is called reciprocal inhibition

Question 22

Steps of SD

Answer 22

1. The anxiety hierarchy - a hierarchy is put together by the patient and therapist - it’s a list of situations related the patient and therapist - it’s a list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that provokes anxiety. It’s arranged from least to most frightening situations, subjective
2. Relaxation - the therapist teaches the patient relaxation techniques involving breathing exercises and mental imagery. They may had asked to imagine themselves in relaxing situations or may learn meditation alternatively drugs such calcium can be given to a hive relaxation in extreme situations
3. The patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst in a relaxed state. This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierchy, if the patient remains relaxed they can move up the hierarchy once they reach the top the treatment is deemed successful

Question 23

Flooding

Answer 23

behavioural therapy in which the patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus using the principles of classical conditioning
- involves exposing the patient to their phobic stimulus without a gradual build-up in anxiety hierarchy
- instead, flooding involves immediate exposure to a very frightening situation e.g. having a large spider crawl over you an extended time
- sessions are typically longer than SD session however one session cant last between 2-3 hours , sometimes only one session is needed

Question 24

why does flooding work

Answer 24

-flooding stops the phobic response very quickly as avoidance is not an option -the patient learns very quickly that the stimulus is harmless - therefore the learned response in extinguished - conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response

Question 25

Ethical safeguards - flooding

Answer 25

- flooring is not considered as unetheical as patient have to give informed consent and are fully prepared beforehand - a patient is usually given the choice between SD and flooding

Question 26

cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 26

the term ' cognitive ' means 'mental processes' the approach focuses on how mental processes affect behaviour - mental processes include thoughts , perceptions and attention - when explaining depression the cognitive approach is investigated in negative patterns of thinking and other cognitive processes such as schema

Question 27

2 cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 27

beck's cognitive theory of depression ellis's ABC model

Question 28

Beck's cognitive theory

Answer 28

used a cognitive approach to ex

Question 29

Faulty information processing

Answer 29

when depressed an individual attends to negative aspects of a situation and ignores the positives e.g. if an individual with depression won £1 million on the lottery they might focus on the fact that someone else won £10 million the week before, rather than focusing on the positives of winning £10 million e.g. getting a C, one mark off a B as someone whos never gotten above a D before, focusing on the loss of the mark one may also blow small problems out of proportion and think it's 'black and white' absolutist thinking, how your'e processing not thinking

Question 30

Negative self schema

Answer 30

- a schema is a 'package' of o ideas and information developed through experience - they act as a mental framework for interpretation of into the enviromnent - help us interpret info about the world a self-schema is the package of information we have about ourselves i if an idividual has a negative self schema they will interpret all information about themselves in a negative way - those with depression are likely to have a negative self schema are at higher risk of getting depression could have come from: - conditions of self worth - bullying - teachers - report cards, trouble maker - parental problems

Question 31

The negative triad

Answer 31

thinking rather than processing the idea that there are three kinds of negative thinking: negative views of the world, self and future Beck suggested that a person develops a dysfunctional view of themselves because of 3 types of thinking they occur automatically regardless of the reality of what is happening at the time negative views of the world negative views of the future negative views of the self arrows to each don't have be irrational, vulnerability due to negative thinking

Question 32

negative views of the world

Answer 32

e.g. this is a hard cold place, creates the impression that there is no hope anywhere

Question 33

negative views of the future

Answer 33

e.g. the evil in the world is likely to increase, reduces hopefulness

Question 34

negative views of the self

Answer 34

e.g. I don't look good, confirming low self-esteem which consequently enhances depression

Question 35

Ellis's Model

Answer 35

Depression occurs when an activating event A triggers an irrational belief B which in turns produces a consequence C The focus of this model is irrational beliefs He said that good mental health is a result of rational thinking Therefore conditions such as anxiety and depression are a result of irrational thinking (illogical and unrealistic thoughts) Ellis used the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state

Question 36

A

Answer 36

Activating agent e.g. failing an exam, we get depressed when we experience negative events that trigger irrational beliefs

Question 37

B

Answer 37

beliefs e.g. ill never pass, i can't cope if I lose someone else. These can be rational or irrational - these can include musturbatory thinking (thinking that certain ideas must be true in order for an individual to be happy) e.g. i must get an A next time, holding these beliefs eventually lead to disappointment

Question 38

C

Answer 38

consequence, when an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences - depression

Question 39

the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 39

cognitive behavioural therapy including challenging irrational thoughts

Question 40

Cognitive approach

Answer 40

offers explanations for depression which can then be applied to the treatment of depression. In particular we are interested in cognitive behaviour therapy, the standard psychological treatment for depression. You are also required specifically to know about the role of challenging irrational thoughts in CBT

Question 41

Cognitive behaviour therapy

Answer 41

a method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques. From the cognitive viewpoint, the therapy aims to deal with thinking such as challenging negative thoughts. This therapy also includes behavioral techniques such as behavioral activation

Question 42

Irrational thoughts

Answer 42

also called dysfunctional thoughts, in Ellis's model and therapy, they are defined as thoughts that are likely to interfere with a person's happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts lead to mental disorders such as depression

Question 43

Cognitive behaviour therapy

Answer 43

CBT is the most commonly used psychological treatment for depression and a range of other mental health problems. If you see a clinical psychologist for a mental health problem the chances you will receive CBT. CBT begins with an assessment in which the patient and the cognitive behaviour therapist work together to clarify the patient's problems. They identify goals for the therapy together and put together a plan to achieve them. One of the central tasks is to identify where there might be negative or irrational thoughts that will benefit from challenge. CBT then involves working to change negative and irrational thoughts and finally puts some more effective behaviours into place. Some CBT therapists finally do this using techniques purely from Beck's cognitive therapy or some rely exclusively on Elis's rational emotive behaviour therapy. Most draw on both

Question 44

Neural Explanations Role of serotonin

Answer 44

neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another - serotonin regulates mood If an individual has low levels of serotonin regulates mood normal transmission of mood - relevant information doesn't take place Therefore mood (sometimes other mental processes) are affected low levels of serotonin - stays anxious for longer

Question 45

Neural Explanations Decision making systems

Answer 45

some types of OCD have been associated with impared decision making this may associated with abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes in the brain (behind the forehead) - these are parts if the brain that are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions - damage to this area can lead to emotions like 'worry' not being supressed when they should be - in addition, there is an area called the para-ippocampus gurus that has been found to function abnormally in patients with OCD - the area is assossiated with processing unpleasant emotions

Question 46

para-hippocampal gyrus

Answer 46

above, formation of new memories, crease

Question 47

biological treatment: drug therapy

Answer 47

chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or some other body systems In psychological disorders such as drugs affect neurotransmitter levels - increasing/ decresing neurotransmitter levels aims to increase/ decrease activity in the brain - that then affects our processing and behaviour OCD is assosiated with low levels of serotonin - therefore drugs work to increase the level of serotonin in the brain

Question 48

what usually happens in serotonin systems

Answer 48

serotonin is released from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another neuron (postsynaptic neuron) to reach a postsynaptic neuron, serotonin must travel across a synapse (the gap between 2 neurons) some serotonin successfully travels to the postsynaptic neuron consequently the excess serotonin in reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron (to break down and re-use)

Question 49

SSRIs

Answer 49

Selective serotonin reuptake inibitors

Question 50

Selective serotonin reuptake inibitors

Answer 50

reuptae inhibitor = inhibits (prevents) the reuptake (reabsorption) of selective serotonin neurotransmitters (selective meaning not all serotonin) SSRIs are a type of anti-depressant that works on the serotonin system in the brain

Question 51

What do SSRIs do

Answer 51

SSRIs prevent the breakdown and reasorbtion of serotinin in the presynaptic neuron - SSRIs block the sites where reabsorbtion takes place, leaving excess serotonin in the synapse - however chemicals cannot stay in the synapse they must move into a neuron - serotonini then has no choise but to move into the post synaptic neuron - this means that there is more serotonin than usual travelling from one neuron to the next - increasing the overall amount of serotonin in the brain - doesnt add serotonin, blocks uptake

Question 52

Combined treatment

Answer 52

SSRIs are often used alongside CBT to treat OCD - the drugs reduce the patients emotional characteristics such as anxiety and depression - also meaning that patients can engage more in CBT - In practice some people respond best to CBT alone whilst others benifit more from drugs - occasionally, other drugs are prescribed alongside SSRIs

Question 53

alternatives to SSRIS

Answer 53

if SSRIs show no effect after 3/4 months the dose is increased or is combined with other drugs - this is usually other anidepressants others work well for some and not others tricyclics sNRIs

Question 54

tricyclics

Answer 54

older types of anti-depressants that have the same effects as SRRIs (usually more side effects)

Question 55

bereavement

Answer 55

loss/ greif

Question 56

Three categories of phobias

Answer 56

Specific phobia-phobia of an object or situation Social phobia -phobia of a social situation Agoraphobia -phobia of public or open spaces

Question 57

Phobias

Answer 57

An irrational fear of an object or situation It’s an excessive fit and anxiety , triggered by an object place or situation The extent of the fear is not proportional to the actual danger stimulus the fear of irrational

Question 58

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Answer 58

The ways of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning Behavioural approach focuses on what observable so it’s more concerned with the behavioural characteristics of phobias and less concerned with emotional and cognitive

Question 59

Mowrer

Answer 59

Proposed the two process model Phobia initiation : classical conditioning Phobia maintenance : apparent conditioning

Question 60

Mowrer

Answer 60

Proposed the two process model Phobia initiation : classical conditioning Phobia maintenance : apparent conditioning

Question 61

Initiation

Answer 61

Learning associated when a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned response repeatedly pad they produce a conditioned response An unconditioned stimuli that produces an unconditioned response example natural response pupil dilating in the dark

Question 62

Watson & Rayhner little Albert

Answer 62

Conditioned a phobia of white rats and other fluffy objects in a nine month old boy Albert showed no fear or anxiety before the study However Phobia was conditioned of consistent banging of an iron bar close to Albert ear whenever he reached for the rats, white fluffy objects example Santa beard

Question 63

Watson & Rayhner little Albert

Answer 63

Conditioned a phobia of white rats and other fluffy objects in a nine month old boy Albert showed no fear or anxiety before the study However Phobia was conditioned of consistent banging of an iron bar close to Albert ear whenever he reached for the rats, white fluffy objects example Santa beard

Question 64

Little Albert, quick evaluation

Answer 64

Only one boy low generalisably Already had trouble developing Institutionalised Norton ethical study failure to protect from physical and psychological harm Patients are lucky to consent that their child being damaged long-term

Question 65

Little Albert, quick evaluation

Answer 65

Only one boy low generalisably Already had trouble developing Institutionalised Norton ethical study failure to protect from physical and psychological harm Patients are lucky to consent that their child being damaged long-term

Question 66

Maintenance: operant conditioning

Answer 66

Learning from reinforcement, if the consequences of behaviour is rewarding or remove something unpleasant it’s likely repeated Classical conditioning can explain why the fair comes from but can’t explain why it continues nor can explain avoidance behaviour Reinforcing avoiding the stimulus removes and anxiety escaping and unpleasant situation Anxiety is no longer experienced as a result of avoidance avoidance behaviour will continue as it is being reinforced

Question 67

Maintenance: operant conditioning

Answer 67

Learning from reinforcement, if the consequences of behaviour is rewarding or remove something unpleasant it’s likely repeated Classical conditioning can explain why the fair comes from but can’t explain why it continues nor can explain avoidance behaviour Reinforcing avoiding the stimulus removes and anxiety escaping and unpleasant situation Anxiety is no longer experienced as a result of avoidance avoidance behaviour will continue as it is being reinforced

Question 68

Using the concept of negative reinforcement, explain why someone would continue to feed dogs after being bitten

Answer 68

A person will continue to demonstrate avoidance as this way the unpleasant stimulus is avoided

Question 69

Why can’t someone who’s been bitten not fear dogs?

Answer 69

More positive conditioning and associations Rationalising - behaviourists would say this is not possible Conditioning didn’t happen in that situation

Question 70

Why can’t someone who’s been bitten not fear dogs?

Answer 70

More positive conditioning and associations Rationalising - behaviourists would say this is not possible Conditioning didn’t happen in that situation

Question 71

Alternative explanation, social learning

Answer 71

This is not part of the two process model, but it is a neo behaviourist explanation Social learning suggest that fear can be learnt from others (role models) E.G.watching your mother react with fear and avoidance towards the spider in the kitchen, this behaviour can be mimic by child particularly if responses reinforced e.g. comfort escape attention Vicarious reinforcement identification

Question 72

Behavioural treatments

Answer 72

Behaviour adopt the concept of classical conditioning to treat phobias As phobias are initiated by associating a neutral stimulus with a feared unconditioned stimulus, phobias can be treated by removing or replacing this association

Question 73

Two types of behavioural treatments

Answer 73

Systematic desensitisation Flooding

Question 74

Systematic desensitisation

Answer 74

A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response such as anxiety to a stimulus. It does this gradually using principles of classical conditioning in terms if the individual can learn to relax in the presence of a phobic stimulus they will be cured. Essentially a new response to the stimulus is learned (relaxation of anxiety.) this is called counterconditioning. it’s impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one motion prevent the other this is called reciprocal inhibition

Question 75

Systematic desensitisation

Answer 75

A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response such as anxiety to a stimulus. It does this gradually using principles of classical conditioning in terms if the individual can learn to relax in the presence of a phobic stimulus they will be cured. Essentially a new response to the stimulus is learned (relaxation of anxiety.) this is called counterconditioning. it’s impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one motion prevent the other this is called reciprocal inhibition

Question 76

Counterconditioning

Answer 76

When a new response to the stimulus is learned, relaxation instead of anxiety

Question 77

Reciprocal inhibition

Answer 77

It’s impossible to be afraid and relax at the same time so one emotion prevent the other

Question 78

OCD definition

Answer 78

Condition characterised by obsessions and compressions Obsessions : recurring thoughts and images Compulsions : repetitive behaviour such as hand washing turning switches on and off Most people with a diagnosis had both obsession and proportions

Question 79

Depression definition

Answer 79

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and energy levels The DSM five recognises four categories of depression -Major depressive disorder: severe short term -Persistent depressed disorder: long-term recurring depression -Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder-childhood temper tantrums -Premenstrual dysphoric disorder-disruption to prior or during menstruation

Question 80

Phobia definition

Answer 80

An irrational fear of an object or situation An excessive fear and anxiety triggered by an object place or situation The extent of the fear is not proportional to the actual danger presented by the stimulus the fear is irrational