Gender

Question 1

difference between sex and gender

Answer 1

Although sex and gender are terms often used
interchangeably in everyday life, many psychologists now
distinguish between them.

Question 2

sex

Answer 2

the biological differences between males and
females such as chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

Question 3

gender

Answer 3

the psychological and cultural differences
between males and females such as attitudes, behaviours and social norms

Question 4

primary sex characteristic

Answer 4

organs for reproduction

Question 5

secondary sex characteristics

Answer 5

deeper voice
body hair

Question 6

sex

Answer 6

nature
pre-determined

Question 7

gender

Answer 7

nature/nurture
fluid
previously names ‘sex change’ changed to ‘gender reasingment’

Question 8

sex-role steryotpes

Answer 8

Sex-role stereotypes: a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas
about what is expected or appropriate for males and females
in a given society

Question 9

sex-role steryotypes examples

Answer 9

These stereotypes are usually communicated and transmitted
through society, reinforced by parents, media and other
institutions
- long/short hair
-war
Although some of the stereotypes have some aspects of truth,
they’re often harmful in real life (sexism)

Question 10

examples of gender steryotypes that haven’t been proved to be true

Answer 10

Poor drivers

Love shopping

Love sad movies

Take hours to get ready

Full time child carers

Breadwinners

Hate shopping

Obsessed with sex

Commitment phobics

Leave the toilet seat up

Question 11

valid sex-role stereotypes

Answer 11

Some popular sex-role stereotypes have scientific backing – Multi-tasking.
- Used MRI to map connections in the brains of 949 men and women
- They found that women’s brains made much better connections across the hemispheres of the brain, whereas men’s brains showed most intense activity in specific parts of the brain e.g. the cerebellum (which controls motor skills)
- They concluded that the female brain is more able to cope with multiple tasks at once whereas the male brain is better at focusing on one complex task at a time

Question 12

gender dysphoria

Answer 12

previously known as gender identity disorder

gender identity doesn’t match up with biological sex

E.g. a biological male may feel more feminine than
masculine and may conform to gender norms more
associated with females

This can lead to choosing gender reassignment surgery to
align one’s sexual identity with their gender identity

Question 13

The Batista family

Answer 13

Imperato-McGinley et al. (1974) studied the Batista family
from the Dominican Republic. Four children from the family
were biologically identified as girls at birth and raised as girls

but it was later identified that they were affected by a rare
genetic disorder which caused their male genitalia to grow
internally instead of externally (they were biologically XY
male)

(extra: in the womb, a crucial hormone DHT –
Dihydrotestosterone was not introduced, responsible for
externalising the male genitalia)

By puberty, their vaginas closed over and male genitalia
appeared and grew to normal size. They decided to live their
lives as males, in line with their sexual identity

• Interestingly, the Batista boys seemed to abandon their
  female gender identities very easily with few problems
  adjusting

findings:
Interestingly, the Batista boys seemed to abandon their
female gender identities very easily with few problems
adjusting

They quickly adapted to new roles as boys and men

Question 14

what does Batista boys case suggest

Answer 14

Gender identity is fluid (flexible) and not fixed

Sex identity may play a powerful role in gender identity –
specifically, the role of hormones (a later topic)

Question 15

androgyny def

Answer 15

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics (traits and attitudes) in one’s personality and behaviour

Question 16

androgyny

Answer 16

• This is another term used to distinguish between everyday
  understanding and psychological understanding of gender
• In recent years, Western studies have observed a blurred distinction
  between masculinity and femininity, with more people (particularly
  young) claiming to be more androgynous in their attitudes and
  behaviours
• Androgyny is not about women displaying excessive masculinity or
  vice-versa, it is about having a roughly equal balance of masculine
  and feminine traits, regardless of your biological sex

Question 17

Sadra Bem

Answer 17

Sandra Bem developed a method to measure androgyny and theorised that high androgyny was associated with better psychological well-being.
She believed that those with both masculine and feminine traits were better equipped to adapt to a range of situations because they have more traits to draw on than those who are predominantly masculine/feminine
Bem developed The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to measure levels of androgyny

Question 18

The Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 18

The BSRI is a scale containing 20 ‘masculine’
characteristics, 20 ‘feminine’ characteristics and 20
‘neutral characteristics’ (60 items in total)

Respondents had to rate themselves on each item using a
7-point rating scale – 1 meaning ‘never true of me’ to 7
meaning ‘always true of me’

High and low scores on each set of characteristics would
then classify respondents into 1 of 4 groups:

Masculine, Feminine, Androgynous or Undifferentiated

Question 19

BSRI findings

Answer 19

High masculine + low
feminine = Masculine

Low masculine + high
feminine = Feminine

High masculine + high
feminine = Androgynous

Low masculine + low
feminine =
Undifferentiated

Question 20

evaluation BSRI

Answer 20

Quantitative methods

Strengths: quantifying gender identity is useful for research
purposes (easy to analyse, compare, draw conclusions and
replicate)

Weaknesses: Spence (1984) says there’s more to gender
identity than a set of characteristics and how many are
present, so qualitative methods should be used (problem?)

Solution: qualitative and quantitative methods could be
combined, or at least a combination of different quantitative
scales

The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) is a quantitative
measure of the expressivity and significance of characteristics
that could be combined with the BSRI

Question 21

evaluation : reliability/validity

Answer 21

At the time it was made, the BSRI was considered both
valid and reliable

It was made by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate
200 traits on how much they represented each gender

The ones rated highest were the ones chosen for the BSRI

The scale was then piloted on 1000 students and was
found to accurate measure gender identity (the scale
corresponded with the ppts’ own descriptions)

They followed up with a smaller number of the 1000
students a month later and the scores were consistent,
demonstrating replicabbility/ reliability

The BSRI was made nearly 50 years ago so the characteristics
may no longer represent each gender in the ways they once
did

E.g. the terms ‘metrosexual’ and ‘ladette’ were added to the
Oxford dictionary in the 1990s

Bem’s scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of what
masculinity and femininity are

Not only were the judgements made in one point of time, they
were made using Americans only

• cultural bias/ ethnocentric

problems wih generalisibility

Question 23

Evaluation: self awareness

Answer 23

To measure one’s gender identity, especially using the
BSRI, we must rely on one’s self-awareness of their
gender identity

We assume individuals have the insight into their
personalities and behaviours required to complete the
scale accurately and reliably, but they may not

Gender is a psychosocial construct that is subjective and
open to constant change

• lack of internal validity

Question 24

What exactly are chromosomes?

Answer 24

Found in the nucleus of living cells and carry information in
the form of genes

Question 25

The role of chromosomes

Answer 25

Sex is determined at conception by chromosomes

Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, the last pair contain the
instructions for a zygote’s sex

The ovum (egg) can only supply an X chromosome whereas
the sperm can supply either an X or Y chromosome

If the 23rd pairing is XX the zygote is genetically female

If the 23rd pairing is XY the zygote is genetically male

Question 26

The role of chromosomes

Answer 26

Zygotes develop into embryos that have the exact same
genitalia for the first 8 weeks of development

The Y chromosomes in males carry a gene called
‘sex-determining region Y’ – the SRY gene

This gene instructs the testes to develop

At 8 weeks, the testes produce androgens (male hormones)
that stimulate the development of remaining male genitalia

Genetic females do not produce these androgens, so female
genitalia develops instead

Question 27

XX

Answer 27

girl

Question 28

XY

Answer 28

boy

Question 29

SRY gene

Answer 29

sex determining region Y
At 8 weeks, the testes produce androgens (male hormones)
that stimulate the development of remaining male genitalia

Genetic females do not produce these androgens, so female
genitalia develops instead

Question 30

hormones

Answer 30

a biochemical substance that circulates in the blood
and affects target organs

Question 31

the hormones role

Answer 31

Hormones are produced in large quantities but disappear very
quickly – regardless, they are very powerful

During pre-natal development, hormones affect brain development
and cause reproductive organs to develop

They also cause the development of secondary sexual characteristics
at puberty

Males and females produce the same hormones but at different
concentrations

The three hormones most relevant in sexual development are
testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin

Question 32

teststerone def

Answer 32

A hormone from the androgen group produced mainly in the
testes, associated with aggression

Question 33

testosterone

Answer 33

Although testosterone is a ‘male’ hormone, small quantities
are produced by females in the ovaries

Testosterone controls the development of male sex organs

So even a genetic XX female could produce high levels of
testosterone in the womb and develop male genitals

Testosterone is associated with aggression – this is suggested
to be an evolutionary adaptation

Aggressive males are better adapted to compete for mates and
win, as well as protect their young from other predators and
successfully hunt for prey

Question 34

Oestrogen def

Answer 34

The primary female hormone that regulates the menstrual cycle
and reproductive system

Question 35

oestrogen

Answer 35

Oestrogen determines female sexual characteristics
(prenatally and during puberty) and menstruation

This hormone can cause feelings of irritability and
heightened emotionality during the menstrual cycle
(known as premenstrual tension or PMS…)

Although PMS has been disputed as a medical disorder, it
has been successfully used in courts to defend shoplifting
and murder

Question 36

oxytocin def

Answer 36

A hormone that causes contraction of the uterus during labour
and stimulates lactation

Question 37

steryotype threat

Answer 37

conform to steryotypes

Question 38

intro

The influence of culture and media

Answer 38

This content goes hand in hand with SLT (observational
learning) but it is not a theory

We have covered all of the explanations for typical
gender development

This is an essay topic on a body of research, not an
explanation for how gender development

Question 39

def

Culture

Answer 39

the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a
particular group in society

Question 40

def

media

Answer 40

communication channels (TV, film, books) that

Question 41

Gender roles

Answer 41

a set of behaviours and attitudes
considered appropriate for each gender

(appropriate for one gender but not appropriate for
another)

Question 42

Influence of culture of gender roles

Answer 42

• Studying cultural similarities and differences in gender-role
  behaviour across cultures can help separate the influence of
  nature and nurture on gender roles
• nature: Where we see gender-role behaviours being consistent across
  cultures, we can conclude that they are innate
• nurture: Where we see gender-role behaviours being specific to a
  particular culture (culture-specific) we can conclude that they
  are due to social learning

The content is focused on what research has shown when
investigating gender-roles across cultures

Question 43

Cultural differences

Answer 43

Mead (1935) studied gender roles in
different cultural groups from the island of
Samoa

The Arapesh were gentle and responsive

The Mundugumor were aggressive and
hostile

The Tchambuli women were dominant
leaders and the men were passive and
‘decorative’

What does this suggest about gender roles?

The biological relationship between sex and gender may not be as
strong or direct as we think – gender roles are likely to be culturally
determined

Furthermore, although Mead found in later research that many
gender-typical behaviours seem to be universal, they are still likely
to be learned via cultural norms rather than being innate

Question 44

Cultural similarities

Answer 44

Buss (1995) investigated mate preferences across
cultures and found consistent patterns across 37
countries from all continents

In all 37, women preferred men with more wealth and
resources whilst men preferred women with more youth
and physical attractiveness

Munroe and Munroe (1975) also found that in most
societies, labour is divided using gender

(men are the breadwinners, women are the nurturers)

This suggests that some gender-role behaviours may be
innate, despite the influence of culture

Question 46

The influence of media on gender roles

Answer 46

Media provides the role models that children identify with and eventually imitate – models for children are likely to be
same-sex models

Through role models, media provides two things:

Rigid stereotypes – Furnham and Farragher (2000)
analysed TV adverts and found that men were more likely
to be shown in professional contexts with autonomous
roles whilst women were more often shown in domestic
settings with familial roles

This shows that media reinforces stereotypes about
gender-role behaviour

Question 47

Self-efficacy

def

Answer 47

One’s belief in their capacity to reach a certain goal

Question 48

self-efficacy explanation

Answer 48

Role models not only reinforce gender-roles, but they also show that they are possible the carry out – increasing the child’s belief that they can do the same in the future

Question 49

Atypical development – gender dysphoria

Answer 49

Formally known as gender identity disorder

Those with gender dysphoria tend to dress like, use
mannerisms and display characteristics often associated
with the opposite gender

It is classified as a psychological disorder on the DSM-V,
characterised by expression of discomfort with one’s own
gender with desire to change it for at least 6 months

and it must cause significant distress or impairment to
social functioning

Question 50

Biological explanations

explanations for gender dysphoria

Answer 50

Brain structure (brain sex theory)
Genetics

Question 51

Social explanations

Question 52

social expectations

Explanations for gender dysphoria

Answer 52

Social constructivism
Psychoanalytic theory

Question 53

Atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 53

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation,
often associated with physical and psychological symptoms

Question 54

(XXY)

Answer 54

Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)

Question 55

(XO)

Answer 55

Turner’s Syndrome (XO)

Question 56

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 56

A syndrome affecting males where the genotype has an extra X chromosome (XXY)

It affects 1/600 males and 10% of cases are identified before birth. Despite this, 2/3 men are not aware that they have the syndrome

Diagnosis is usually accidental via a medical exam or unrelated conditions

There are a number of physical and psychological characteristics associated with it

Question 57

Nature - nurture debtate

Answer 58

Assuming that the physical/psychological differences are due to nature also assumes causation
Can we be sure that having XXY chromosomes causes clumsiness in men?
Does having XO chromosomes cause social immaturity?
It could be that social/cultural factors are responsible for some characteristics
E.g. those with Turner’s syndrome may be treated as immature in the first place or encouraged to behave in that way by parents, teachers, etc.
Strength or weakness? What is our point?

Answer 59

Research into atypical chromosome patterns increases insight into the syndromes associated, making diagnosis quicker and easier

Herlihy et al. (2011) researched 87 male ppts with Klinefelter’s syndrome. They found that those diagnosed with Klinefelter’s syndrome at a very young age were significantly better at managing their condition compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
Furthermore, treatments have been developed to help manage symptoms – testosterone replacement therapy for those with Klinefelter’s, Oestrogen replacement therapy for those with Turner’s

Therefore, developing our understanding has theoretical value, as well as real life and practical application

Answer 60

or researchers, what is the biggest limitation they will face when investigating atypical chromosome patterns?

Small, limited samples
Cases of each syndrome are rare and only those with most the extreme, problematic symptoms are identified and used to inform research
Without big enough samples, the data on each syndrome is incomplete
E.g. Boada et al. (2009) reviewed longitudinal research on those with Klinefelter’s syndrome and found that many do not experience psychological issues and live successful lives, both academically and personally

Question 61

Gender schema theory

Answer 61

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that develop
from experience

This is another cognitive-developmental theory that suggests
that understanding of gender develops with age

Another similarity with Kohlberg’s theory is the idea that
children actively develop their understanding of gender

(it is not a passive process e.g. imitating role models)

Question 62

Gender identify develops

Answer 62

at the age of 2-3

they will start to search their environments for information
that will encourage the development of their gender schema

This then guides their understanding of their own gender and
gender appropriate behaviour

Question 63

gender schema reinforced by steryotypes

Answer 63

e.g. boy liking trucks
girls liking dolls

Question 64

Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 64

is a cognitive-developmental theory
that suggests one’s gender identity develops and becomes
more sophisticated with age

Question 65

kholberg

how does gender develop

Answer 65

This is not due to experience developing with age (learning)
but it is due to biological maturation

As the brain develops during childhood, thinking matures along
with it (so gender identity develops in parallel with intelligence)

As children mature, so does their understanding of gender
roles and the attitudes and behaviours that come with them

Kohlberg describes this in stages to explain how gender
development is a transitional, gradual process

Question 66

Stage 1: Gender identity ~2yrs

Answer 66

When a child recognises that they are boy or girl and can label
others in the same way

By age 2, children can identify whether they are boy or girl
and by around age 3, they can identify other people as male or
female

E.g. if you show them a picture of a man and woman, they can
identify which is most similar to them (based on sex)

Although they can identify, they don’t properly understand
gender

E.g. they do not understand that sex is permanent

A boy may say ‘when I grow up I want to be a mummy’

Question 67

Stage 2: Gender stability ~4yrs

Answer 67

When a child understands that their gender is fixed

Children recognise that they will keep the same gender over
time, but they cannot yet apply this understanding to other
people

External appearances are confusing – e.g. a man with long hair
may still be identified as a woman

They believe other people’s gender changes based on their
observable behaviours. E.g. a male nurse may be understood
to be a woman due to nurses often being associated with
women