Research Methods Flashcards
What is the aim of a study
A statement of the study’s purpose
What is a directional hypothesis with example
States the directions of the differences or relationship
E.g. more/ less, higher/ lower, faster/ slower
E.g: People who drink red bull become more hyperactive than people who do not
When would you use a directional hypothesis
When there is research that is already published that supports your aim
What is a non directional hypothesis with example
States there is a difference between the conditionals or groups but the nature of the difference is not specific
E.g: There will be a difference between males and females in a test
When would you use a non directional hypothesis
When there is no research that is already published that supports your aim
What is a null hypothesis with example
Is what you’re going to assume is true during the study
Any data you collect will either back this assumption up or not
If the data does not support your null hypothesis -you reject it and go with your alternative hypothesis
E.g: There will be no differences between the variables
What is the independent variable
The thing that is manipulated/ changed e.g. the different groups, the different conditions
Dependant variable
The thing that is measured/ will be affected by the changes
What does operationalisation mean with an example
This means how we are going to measure our variables
We must define how we intend to measure IV and DV
E.g: E.g. after drinking 300ml of red bull, ppts say more words in the next five minutes than ppts who drink 300ml of water
Example of counterbalancing
E.g. half of the participants participate in condition A before condition B and vice versa
This means that the first and second condition is not the same for every participant
Example of randomisation
Participants are assigned to condition A or B first by tossing a coin or picking out a name
What are extraneous variables
Anything that impacts the dependent variable that is not the independent variable
What are confounding variables
Anything other than the IV which has influenced your results which has not been accounted for before the experiment begins
What is informed consent in relation to ethics
Knowing aims and giving your permission to take part in the study
What is deception in relation to ethics and when can it be used
Deliberately misleading or withholding information
The BPS state that deception is only acceptable if there is a strong scientific justification for the research and there are no alternative procedures available
What is the right to withdraw in relation to ethics
Being able to leave when desired
What is the confidentiality in relation to ethics
Details should be kept private
What is the protection from harm in relation to ethics
No more harm than daily life
What is debriefing
Debriefing: returning the ppt to the state they were in before the research
What is the independent groups design
There are two separate groups of participants
One group takes part in condition A, the other takes part in condition B
Advantages of independent groups design
Fewer demand characteristics - participants may only know their condition
No order effects - only take part in one condition, so don’t get bored or practiced
Disadvantages of independent groups design
Individual differences as the people taking part in each condition are different - one group might simply be better at that task
More participants needed
What is the repeated measures design
There is only one group of participants
This group takes part in both conditions
Advantages of repeated measures design
No individual differences as the same person does both conditions
Smaller group sizes
Weaknesses of repeated measures design
Order effects - either boredom, or practice, can be helped by counter balancing
Demand characteristics - ppts know what the experimenters are expecting and may perform to meet that expectation
What is the matched pairs design
Involves the use of independent measures, but each participant in group A is paired with one in group B
This is done by finding participants who can be matched on key characteristics, e.g. IQ, memory ability, gender and so on
Advantages of matched pairs design
No order effects
Controls for individual differences
More sure the DV is caused by the IV and not differences between the 2 groups
Disadvantages of matched pairs design
Can be difficult to make perfect matches and is costly on money and time
Use of field experiments
These take place outside of the lab, in a natural environment but the basic scientific procedures are still followed as far as possible
The independent variable is manipulated
The effect on the dependent variable is measured
Example of a field experiment that we have studied
Bickman and Bushman
Advantages of field experiment
Less artificial than a lab but still an experiment (high mundane realism)
Represents reality
Can be completed in natural environments
Avoid ppt effect (if they are not aware of the study) therefore it should produce behaviour which is more natural and valid
Less demand characteristics
Weaknesses of field experiments
Extraneous variables less easy to control therefore less able to show cause and effect
Ethical issues - ppts unlikely to know they are being studied
Use of laboratory experiments
Controlled artificial environment
Independent variable is manipulated
Advantages of laboratory experiments
Controlled environment
Minimises problems with extraneous variables
Can be easily replicated to check same results
High in reliability
Disadvantages of laboratory experiments
Artificial environment (low mundane realism)
Ppt may behave differently to normal or be effected by the environment (demand characteristics)
It therefore may lack generalisability (low external validity)
What is a confederate
Somebody actively involved in the research
What is a double blind trial
Neither ppts or the researcher are aware of the aims of the investigation
Used in drug trials
What is a single blind trial
Ppts are not aware of the condition they are in
Used to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics
What is a natural experiment
Natural environment
Independent variable not manipulated
Taking advantage of a natural occurring event
Advantages of natural experiments
High in ecological validity (represents real life experience) provides opportunities for for research which otherwise may not be available
Enables psychologists to study ‘real’ problems
Objective research method - little interference from researcher
Few ethical issues
Weaknesses of natural experiments
A naturally occurring event may happen very rarely which limits the opportunity to investigate this also limits generalisability
Many extraneous variables which are a threat to ‘cause - effect’ conclusion
Ppts are not randomly allocated to conditions which may mean that there is some bias in the sample
What are quasi experiments
In quasi experiments the IV is a naturally existing characteristic between people and has not been changed by anyone or anything
E.g. biological sex, eye colour, ethnicity, IQ
Advantages of quasi experiments
Often carried out under laboratory conditions so therefore high in controls
Enables psychologists to study ‘real’ problems
Disadvantages of quasi experiments
Like natural experiments ppts cannot be randomly allocated to conditions therefore there may be confounding variables
This means that we cannot say cause and effect
What are behavioural categories
Devising a set off component behaviours
What is event sampling
Counting the numbers of times a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals
What is time sampling
Recording behaviours in a given time frame
E.g. noting what an individual is doing every 30 seconds
What is a controlled observation
When the researcher has some measure of control over the environment
Strengths of controlled observations
Control over extraneous variables
Inter-observer reliability
Easy to replicate
Disadvantages of controlled observation
Low ecological validity
May be subjective towards what the researcher wants to see
What is naturalistic observation
Studying behaviour in a natural setting where everything has been left as it is normally
Advantages of naturalistic observations
High external validity
Natural environment- generalised to everyday life
Few demand characteristic
Disadvantages of naturalistic observations
Replication difficult - lack of control
Uncontrolled extraneous variables
What is a covert observation
The ppts are not aware that they are being observed
Strengths of covert observation
No demand characteristics
Weaknesses of covert observation
Ethical issues as they do not know they are being observed
What is an overt observation
The ppts are aware that they are being observed
Strengths of overt observation
Less ethical issues as they are not being deceived
Weaknesses of overt observation
There maybe demand characteristics as they know they are being observed
What is participant observation
The observer acts as part of the group being watched
Strengths of participant observation
Participants experience situation
Insight
Increased validity
Weaknesses of participant observation
Lose objectivity
Difficult in recording observation
Ethical issues
What is a non-participant observation
The experimenter does not become part of the group being observed
Strengths of non-participant observation
More ethical
More objective
Weaknesses of non participant observations
Less insight
Not experiencing the same things
Lower in validity
What is a structured observation
The researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed within a specific time frame
Strengths of structured observation
It is easier to gather relevant data because you know what you are looking for
Weaknesses of structured observation
Interesting behaviours could go unrecorded because they weren’t pre-defined as important
What is an unstructured observation
The observer recalls all relevant behaviour but has no system
Strengths of an unstructured observation
Interesting behaviours do not go unrecorded because they are pre-defined as important
Weaknesses of an unstructured observation
It is harder to gather relevant data because you don’t know what you are looking for
What is inter rater reliability
The test should give consistent results, regardless of who is collecting the results
Can be assessed by correlating scores from both researchers and comparing
This should be an 80% agreement
What are investigator effects
Anything the researcher does that affects how the ppt behaves
Demand characteristics
Could lead to them asking leading questions
Ppts may react to the behaviour or appearance of a researcher and respond differently
What is researcher bias
The researchers expectations can influence how they design their study and how they behave towards the ppts
Expectations can effect measurement and analysis
Hypothesis might be false
May focus on answers that fit their expectations
What is qualitative data
Data expressed in words and is non-numerical
Advantages of qualitative data
Advantages: offers a rich insight and details of peoples thoughts and feelings
Disadvantages of qualitative data
Disadvantages: can be difficult to analyse and may be subject to researcher bias
Time consuming to analyse
What is quantitative data
Numerical data
Advantages of quantitative data
Advantages:
easy to analyse
Conclusions can be drawn easily
More objective and less open to bias
Disadvantages of quantitative data
Disadvantages:
Not as meaningful
May not represent real life (could be forced to choose answer they don’t agree with)
What is primary data
Primary - data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of the research project
Usually gathered first hand
E.g. questionairre
Advantages of primary data
Authentic data obtained directly from the ppt therefore targeted to get the information that is required
Disadvantages of primary data
Can require a lot of time and effort in conducting the experiment etc
What is secondary data
Secondary: information than predates the research project and has already been gathered by someone else
Advantages of secondary data
May be inexpensive and easily accessible requiring minimal effort
Disadvantages of secondary data
There maybe variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data
The content of the data may not quite match the researcher’s needs
What is a pilot study and why is it used
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc, work and to allow the researcher to make changes or notification if necessary
What are two types of self report methods
Both questionairres and interviews are types of self report method
This is because the ppt reports their own thoughts and feelings about a particular matter
What are questionnaires
Questionnaires are a set of questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and experience
Usually gathered from large numbers of people
Carried out on selected samples of people
May include a mixture of both open and closed questions
What are open questions
Open questions - range of answer is not restricted by the researcher
E.g. how do you feel about…?
What is a sample
The people used in the study from the target population
What is a population
The population is the group of people from whom the sample is drawn
We use a target population is we want to investigate specific individual differences
What is a random sampling
Each ppt has an equal chance of selection e.g. name drawn out of a hat
Advantages of random sampling
Unbiased, all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection
Weaknesses of random sampling
The researcher may end up with a biased sample because the sample is too small
Subgroup of target population might not be selected - does not guarantee a representative sample
What is volunteer sampling
Researcher advertises the study and people who see the advert may get in contact and volunteer e.g. poster, newspaper, Milgram
Advantages of volunteer sampling
Quick convenient and ethical if it leads to informed consent
Large response rate
Allows more in-depth analysis and accurate results
Weaknesses of volunteer sampling
Sample is biased because the ppts are likely to be more motivated (volunteer bias)
What is opportunity sampling
Asking people who are available at that time to take part e.g. researcher may ask parents picking their children up from school
Advantages of opportunity sampling
The easy and fastest method because you just use the first ppts you can find
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
Biased because the sample is drawn from a small part of the population
Unlikely to be representative of a target population
What is stratified sampling
Selecting people from every portion of your population - in the same proportions
Strengths of stratified sampling
More representative than an opportunity sample because there should be equal representation of subgroups
Weaknesses of stratified sampling
It is time-consuming because all potential ppts need to be assessed and categorised
Some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used
Example of stratified sampling
Sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population or wider population or wider population
E.g. a researcher would like to investigate male students
In a class of 20 students, 10 are 16 year olds, 8 are 17 years old and 2 are 18 year old
If you take a sample of 10, the number of 16,17 and 18 year olds needs to be 50% of the whole class
• Five 16 year olds
• Four 17 year olds
• One 18 years olds
What is systematic sampling
Selecting every nth name from a list
Strengths of systematic sampling
It avoids bias as, once the researcher has decided what number they have no control over who is being selected
Weaknesses of systematic sampling
It is not completely objective because the researcher may decide on how people are listed before the selection
There is a small chance of a ‘freak’ sample which would not be representative
What is presumptive consent
Ask similar group of people for consent
What is prior general consent
Consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception
What is retrospective consent
Asked consent during debrief
Structure of a consent letter
Ppt number:
Debrief of the study:
Aim:
Signed
Print name
With date
How ethics boards conduct a cost benefit analysis
Cost: if there are any negative impacts on participants
Benefits: if there are positive impacts that could come of research. This could impact society, science and the individual
What is social desirability bias
People try to show themselves in the best possible light
They may not complete a task truthfully and gives the answers that are more socially acceptable
Results become less valid
What is the Hawthorne effect
If people are interested in something and in the attention they are getting, then they show a more positive response, and try harder at tasks
Results are artificially high = could lead to invalid conclusions (please you effect)
Opposite occurs if ppts are uninterested (screw you effect)
What are situational variables
A type of extraneous variable found in the environment
Noise, light, time, location, temperature or weather
What are participant variables
A type of extraneous variable found in participants
Motivation levels, moods, skills, experience, fatigue, eyesight etc
What are experimenter variables
Effects of the experimenter’s expectation which are communicated intentionally or unintentionally ( also known as Investigator Effects )
E.g. an experimenter might accidentally give you clues as to the ‘right’ answer in a test by their use of body language or their tone of voice
What is discrete data
This is called discrete data because the units of measurement (for example, CDs) cannot be split up
Can only be exact measures: shoe size, rolls of a dice
Continuous data
Measured using a scale of measurement: height and distance.
Distance - has meaning at all points between the numbers given
E.g. we can travel a distance of 1.2 and 1.85 and even 1.632 miles
What is nominal data
Data represented in the form of categories
E.g. how many students in the 6th form drive to school and how many walk
Is discrete, one item can only appear in one category
What is ordinal data
Ordinal data - data which is ordered in some way
Ask everyone in the class how much they like the 6th form on a scale of 1 – 10
Ordinal data does not have equal intervals between each unit
It would not make sense to say that someone who rated the 6th form as an 8 enjoys it twice as much as someone who rated it 4
What is interval/ratio data
Based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size
E.g. units of measurements for height, time and temperature
What is the mean
The mean is calculated by adding up the data items and dividing by the number of data items
How to calculate mean
Sum of all scores/N
Advantages of using the mean
It is a very sensitive statistic because it takes account of the exact distance between all the values of all the data.
It is representative of all the data
Weaknesses of using the mean
Can be distorted from anomalous results and misrepresent the data
It cannot be used with nominal data
What is the mode
The mode is the value that is the most common data item. If two categories or data items have the same frequency the data has two modes, i.e. are bi-modal
Advantages of using the mode
Unaffected by extreme values
Useful for discrete data
Only method which can be used for nominal data
Weaknesses of using the mode
Sometimes there are so many modes that the data cannot be described using this statistic
What is the median
The median is the middle value in an ordered list
All data items must be arranged in order and the central value is the median
If there is an even number of data items there will be two central items
To calculate the median value add the two items and divide by two
Advantages of using the median
It is not affected by extreme scores so can be useful under such circumstances.
It is easy to calculate
It is not distorted by any anomalous values
Weaknesses of using the median
It is less ‘sensitive’ than the mean because the exact values are not reflected in the median
What is used to measure dispersion
The range
The standard deviation
What is the range
The range is the arithmetic distance between the top and the bottom values in a set of data. It is customary to add 1.
The addition of 1 is because the bottom number could represent 0.5 below it and the top number could be 0.5 above it
Advantage of using the range
Easy to calculate
Weaknesses of using the range
Effected by extreme values.
It fails to take into account the distribution of the numbers, for example, it doesn’t indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly
What is standard deviation
The standard deviation is a more precise way of measuring the dispersion of the data
This is a measure of the average distance between each data item above and below the mean, ignoring plus and minus values.
The smaller the standard deviation, the closer together the values in the set are; a larger standard deviation indicates that the values are more spread out from the mean
How to calculate standard deviation
S = √(X - X)^2 / N
Advantages of standard deviation
Precise measure of dispersion because it takes into account all the values
Weaknesses of standard deviation
It may hide some of the characteristics of the data set (e.g. extreme values)
What is a bar chart
Used to represent ‘discrete data’ where the data is in categories, which are placed on the x-axis
The mean or frequency is on the y-axis
Columns do not touch and have equal width and spacing
Examples:
Differences in males/females on a spatial task
Score on a depression scale before and after treatment
What is a histogram
Used to represent data on a ‘continuous’ scale
Columns touch because each one forms a single score (interval) on a related scale, e.g., time - number of hours of homework students do each week
Scores (intervals) are placed on the x-axis
The height of the column shows the frequency of values, e.g., number of students in each interval – this goes on the y-axis
What are closed questions
Closed questions - possible answers are determined by the researcher - various types of these and best asked when factual information is needed e.g. age
What is a likert scale
One in which the respondent indicates their agreement (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale of usually five points
The scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree
Advantages of self report questionnaires
Respondents may feel more able to reveal personal information in a questionnaire compared to an interview
Closed questions produce quantitative data which is easier to analyse
Disadvantages of self report questionnaires
In closed questions, respondents may be forced to select answers which do not represent their real thoughts, leading to data which has lower validity
Certain types of people may complete questionnaires leading to sample bias
What is an unstructured interview
The interview starts with some general aims and questions and then lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
What is a structured interview
When the questions are decided in advance
Strengths of unstructured interviews
Detailed and in depth information obtained
Access information that may not be revealed from pre-determined questions
Deep insights into feelings and thoughts
You can tailor questions to specific responses
Good rapport - high in validity
Weaknesses of unstructured interviews
More affected by interviewer bias then structured interviews
Requires well-trained interviewers
Low reliability - interviewer may behave differently or ask different questions
Hard to analyse answers
Body language
What are semi structured interviews
Combination of both structured and unstructured interview techniques
Strengths of structured interview
Can be easily repeated - standardised questions
Requires less skill than unstructured interviews
Easier to analyse than unstructured interviews
Weaknesses of structured interviews
Interviewer bias may still occur
Social desirability may still occur
Data collected will be restricted by a pre-determined set of questions
What is correlational analysis
When two or more variables (co-variables) are measured in order to identify if there is a relationship between them (e.g. height and shoe size)
A single numerical value is produced that is used to describe the relationship
There are three possible outcome - positive correlation, negative correlation or no correlation
Strengths of correlational analysis
Can be used when it would be unethical/impractical to conduct an experiment
If correlation is significant, then further investigation is justified
If correlation is not significant, you can rule out a causal relationship
Weaknesses of correlational analysis
Correlational analysis cannot demonstrate a cause and effect relationship between variables
There may be other unknown variable that can explain why the co-variables being studied are linked
Extraneous variables may lead to false conclusions
What are correlation coefficients
Number between 0-1
Tells us how strong the correlation is - the nearer to 1, the stronger the relationship
It has a plus or minus sign in front of the number which tells us whether the correlation is positive or negative
What do the different correlations show
Positive: Both variables increase (or decrease) together
Negative: As one variable increases the other decreases
None: No relationship between the variables
What is the difference between experiments and correlations
It is not possible to establish cause and effect using correlation
You may find a strong link between thing but that does not necessarily mean one causes another. Instead you have found an association
E.g. there may be an association between caffeine and anxiety but there may be other interfering variables
Nature and use of interviews
The situation in which a participant says something and the way they are behaving could be important.
Could help the interviewer to understand why something was said and the honesty of a statement
Clearly distinguish what is said by the participant from how they interpret it
Selection of data- can be difficult to summarise. Interviewee could be consulted about what to include and how to present it
Interviewer must be aware of how their feelings about the interviewee might lead to bias interpretations
What is content analysis
Data is analysed as typologies, quotations and summaries- into categories.
Hypotheses are grounded in the data
Representative sample is first collected
Coding units are identified to analyse data
See how often that code appears
On what type of data is content analysis used
Qualitative data- used with secondary data or data you have already collected.
Process involved in content analysis
A representative sample of qualitative data is first collected, from a newspaper for example.
Coding units are identified to analyse the data. A coding unit could be, for example, an act of violence
The qualitative data is then analysed to see how often coding unit occur.
Statistical analysis can then be carried out
Strengths of content analysis
A clear summary of the patterns in the data may be established
Once a coding system has been set up, replication is easy
This improves reliability
Weaknesses of content analysis
Can be subjective
Reducing the data to coding units removes detail
What is thematic analysis
Involves making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories
1. Researcher becomes familiar with the data.
2. Researcher looks for different themes, reviews the themes, defines and names the themes and writes a report
Can give the bases for hypotheses- grounded in the data
Strengths of thematic analysis
Qualitative analysis preserves the details in the data
Creating the hypotheses during analysis allows for new insights to develop
Some objectivity can be established by using triangulation
Weaknesses of thematic analysis
How do you decide which categories to use and whether something fits a category
How do you decide what to leave out of the summary
Subjective decisions
What does a normal distribution look like
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell- shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak
What does a skewed distribution look like
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end
What does a negative distribution look like
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right
What does a positive distribution look like
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
What is validity
How accurate the experiment is
What is internal validity
Internal validity - The study measures or examines what it claimed to measure or examine.
What is external validity
External validity - The extent the results of the study can be generalised to others (also known as ecological validity)
What are the types of validity
Internal validity
External validity
Ecological validity
Concurrent validity
Population validity
Temporal validity
Face validity
Ecological validity
The study is generalisable to real life settings
Concurrent validity
Results from a new test can be compared to a previously well- established test
Population validity
Whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people
Temporal validity
Assesses to what degree research findings remain over time
What is reliability
Reliability is the overall consistency of a measure
What is internal reliability
Internal reliability is the extent to which a test is consistent within itself
What is external reliability
External reliability refers to the ability of the test to produce the same results each time it is carried out
What are the methods to assess reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Split half method
Test-retest method
What is inter-rater reliability
Two or more interviewers/observers must get the same outcome on 80% or more of the behaviours.
What is the split half method
Compare an individual’s performance on two halves of a test
What is the test retest method
A person repeats a test a month or so after doing the test the first time
What is inter observer reliability
A test should give consistent results regardless of who is administering it.
Two researchers should observe behaviour and record the same scores
What is random allocation
Everyone has an equal chance of doing either condition
What is standardisation
Everything should be as similar as possible for all the participants
How can you control extraneous variables
Random sampling creates more equality between groups
What is the experimental group
The participants are the experiment who the researcher is testing
What is a control group
The other condition where participants are taking part in the experiment, but no manipulation is used.
Example of a laboratory study we have covered
Milgram
Advantages of interviews
Rich data
Pilot study
Weaknesses of interviews
Impractical
Ethical issues
What type of data is content analysis and thematic analysis used for
Secondary
What is social desirability bias
People usually try to show themselves in the best possible light. They might not be completely truthful but give answers that are more socially acceptable.
How does social desirability affect validity
Not a true representation of someone’s opinions, thoughts and feelings
What are demand characteristics in single and double blind trials and how are they controlled
Participants may have determined the aims of the study; they might act deliberately to please the researcher (or the opposite)
Controlled through counterbalancing and randomisation
