Approaches To Psychology: Behaviourism Flashcards
How did behaviourism start
Also called ‘ learning theory ‘
Started in America in early 1900s with John Watson
Watson felt that earlier psychological research wasn’t as scientific as it should be
e.g. Wundt studying consciousness using introspection: involves analysing your own experiences but he didn’t know if the ppts were telling the truth so introspection can never be properly scientific
What were watson’s assumptions
They were made to base a scientific approach to psychology:
- Nearly all Behaviour is learned
- Animals and humans learn in same ways
- The ‘mind’ is irrelevant
Watson’s first assumption of “ Nearly all behaviour is learnt “ meaning
The only exceptions are inborn reflexes (like blinking when dirt is in our eyes) and inborn instincts ( like running from danger)
All other actions have been learnt through conditioning
Watson’s second assumption of “ Animals and humans learn in same ways “ meaning
Humans can do more complicated tasks than animals but the same principles by which we learn remain
e.g. us learning to drive a car uses the same principles as a cat learning to use a cat flap
This is based on the idea that we can form stimulus-response associations between stimuli and our actions
However, although we may both use conditioning, humans can be said to use other forms of learning also, such as social learning
Watson’s third assumption of “ The ‘mind’ is irrelevant “ meaning
We can’t directly observe and measure a persons thinking
So we can only obtain measurable data by studying behaviour
However, although cognitive abilities cannot be directly, scientifically measured, they may give a more complete explanation of behaviour- as shown by social learning theory
How can Watson’s first assumption be used to design research methods
Nearly all behaviour is learnt:
Understanding the principles of learning is the main research goal
How can Watson’s second assumption be used to design research methods
Animals and humans learn in the same ways:
Animals can be used as research subjects because what is true for them should be also true for humans
Using animals has practical advantages e.g:
They are easy to keep
In many circumstances they don’t know they are being studied and so behave ‘naturally’
Procedure can be used with them which would be illegal with humans (e.g. giving shocks as punishment to see the effect on learning)
How can Watson’s third assumption be used to design research methods
The ‘mind’ is irrelevant:
Behaviourists only observe quantifiable behaviour
e.g: how many times a lever is pressed, or how long it takes to solve a puzzle
Typical research therefore involves laboratory experiments on animals, to see how they learn
What are the two types of conditioning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment with classical conditioning method
Ivan Pavlov noticed his dogs salivating before they got food
Realised they associated food with another stimulus so he experimented:
Whenever he gave his dogs food, he would ring a bell
When he tried this several times and then rang the bell alone without giving them food, the dogs would salivate
Explanation of Pavlov’s dog experiment
When dogs see food, they salivate
This is an automatic, unlearned response - a reflex
The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR)
The bell had become a conditioned stimulus (CS), and salivation had become a conditioned response (CR)
Meaning of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses
Unconditioned stimulus: the stimulus that causes the reflex response before conditioning. It is the stimulus that naturally produces the response
Conditioned stimulus: the stimulus which, after repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, produces the response
Unconditioned response: the innate ( reflexive ) response to a stimulus that has not been conditioned
Conditioned response: the response that occurs after exposure to the conditioned stimulus
Analysis of Pavlov’s dogs’ behaviour before, during and after conditioning
Before conditioning
A certain stimulus, e.g. food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS) triggers a natural reflex, e.g. salivation (unconditioned response, UCR)
During conditioning
UCS repeatedly presented with another stimulus, e.g. a bell (neutral stimulus) triggers salivation (unconditioned response, UCR)
After conditioning
Over time the bell presented by itself (conditioned stimulus) triggers salivation (conditioned response, CR)
How is the process of learning applicable to human development
Having its needs dealt with and gaining comfort naturally makes a baby happy. This isn’t learnt, this is an inborn reflex
So, comfort is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) producing happiness - unconditioned response (UCR)
The Mother talking to the baby while tending to its needs (UCS) makes the baby pair it’s happiness with the mothers voice, so her voice becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Eventually the sound of the mother’s voice alone will make the baby happy, even when it isn’t paired with having its needs met
Te CS (voice) now causes a conditioned response (CR) - the baby has learned to be pleased at the sound of its mother’s voice
What are the principles of classical conditioning
Generalisation
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Higher order conditioning
What is discrimination in classical conditioning
Discrimination:
When a stimuli similar to the original CS don’t produce the CR.
This can be achieved by withholding the UCS (e.g. food) following it
What is generalisation in classical conditioning
Generalisation:
When stimuli similar to the original CS (e.g. a bell with a different pitch) produce the CR (e.g. salivating)
What is extinction in classical conditioning
When the CR (e.g. salivating) isn’t produced as a result of the CS (e.g. bell)
This happens when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS (e.g. food) following it
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning
When’s previous extinct CR is produced in response to the CS
This happens when the CS is presented again after a period of time during which it’s not been used
What is higher order conditioning in classical conditioning
When a new CS (e.g. a light) produces the CR because the animal associates it with the original CS.
This can be achieved by consistently presenting the new CS before the original CS
What is positive and negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: when something desirable is obtained in response to doing something
e.g. giving a chocolate bar to a well behaved child to encourage good behaviour
Negative reinforcement: when something undesirable ( the negative reinforcer ) is removed when something happens
e.g. being told by the teacher that you’ll have no homework if you pass the test
What did B.F Skinner do
B.F Skinner studied how animals can learn from the consequences of their actions
Since classical conditioning only applies to reflexive responses
Method of Skinner’s study
Skinner created a ‘ Skinner box ‘, in which he placed one rat at a time
Each Skinner box contained a variety of different stimuli - a speaker, lights, a floor which gave an electric shock and a food dispenser which released food when a button was pressed
A hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box
The time taken for rats to learn that pressing the lever would release food was recorded
Results for Skinners study
Initially the rat would run around the cage until it accidentally pressed the lever and it was rewarded with food
The more the rat was put back in the box, the quicker they got at learning where the lever was
Conclusion for Skinner’s study
Rats can learn behaviour through operant conditioning
A behaviour such as pressing a lever can be positively reinforced by receiving food
Evaluation for Skinner’s study
Skinner’s experiment has been hugely influential in promoting the idea behavioural psychology
However, the experiment did use animals, which means the results might not be generalisable to humans
His sample size was also small, which reduces reliability of results
How did Skinner test for negative reinforcement
He showed that a rat could learn to prevent an electric shock by pressing the lever when a light came on
Weaknesses of conditioning
There’s of evidence to show that conditioning can’t explain all human behaviour.
We also learn by observation
Most research involves animals so results can’t be generalised to humans
Different species have different capacities for learning by conditioning, some also learned by simple observation
Genetic seem to influence and limit what’s the different species can learn by conditioning
Lots of experiments into learning in animals may seem unethical. Nowadays, researchers must conduct a cost benefit analysis of whether it’s acceptable to use animals, the animals must be looked after
Method of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner
Ppts was an 11 month old boy called Little Albert
Showed no fear while playing with white fluffy objects such as rabbits or rats
Researchers tried to create a conditioned response to these objects
A white rat was placed in front of Little Albert
As he reached for it, a metal bar was struck loudly behind his head
This was repeated twice at first, then 5 more times a week later
Results of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner
When Little Albert was shown a rat, he would start to cry
This also extended to other white fluffy objects, such as a white Santa beard
Conclusion of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner
A fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned in Little Albert, showing that abnormal behaviour can be learned
Evaluation of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner
Experiment was unethical - could not be repeated today
Not everyone goes onto develop a fear or phobia after a negative situation, so learning theory can’t be the full story
Laboratory study, so lacks ecological validity as the situation was artificial
However, results support Pavlov’s idea of classical conditioning
What has research done on humans for behaviourism shown
Plenty of research has been done on humans, which has shown things like:
Our genes influence our behaviour
We can learn in ways other than conditioning
Mental, cognitive processes are relevant to understanding behaviour
Positive evaluation of strengths of the approach of behaviourism
Behaviourism is very scientific.
Theories are testable and supported by rigorous experimental research – Uses the experimental method→helps to establish cause and effect, objective
It influences all areas of psychology
Replicable→can be repeated due to high control so has reliability
Mainly quantitative data→easy to analyse
Useful applications to real life e.g. phobias, education and child rearing
It provides strong counter-arguments to the nature side of the ‘nature-
nurture’ debate
Positive evaluation of operant conditioning in real life application
Token economy systems (OC): prisons and psychiatric hospitals
- Appropriate behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged
for privileges
CC- treatment of phobias – Little Albert
Negative evaluation for mechanistic view of behaviour for behaviourism
Animals are seen as passive and machine like responders to their environment with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour
SLT and cognitive approach emphasised the importance of mental events at learning.
Process mediates between stimulus and response, suggests that people may play a much more active role in their own learning.
Applies less to humans than animals
Negative evaluation of environmental determinism for behaviourism
All behaviours are determined by past experiences that have been conditioned.
What about free will? - Skinner said that “free will is an illusion”
Past history determines the outcome when something happens
Negative evaluation of the limitations of the behaviouristic approach
Many forms of learning cannot be satisfactorily explained by classical and operant conditioning e.g. insight learning
Approach ignores important mental processes involved in learning
Reductionist→only takes into account nurture, rules out any influence of anything else
Deterministic→ignores free will
Lack of ecological validity due to highly controlled experiments → issues with generalisability
Ethical issues→not all research meets ethical guidelines
Lack of qualitative data→no thoughts or feelings known
Much data has been obtained from species such as rats, dogs and pigeons but the relevance of these findings to human behaviour is dubious
What is social learning theory
A theory that agrees that people can learn through conditioning but claims that people can also learn from role models
What mediational processes are involved in SLT
People must focus their attention on the role model, perceive what they do and remember it in order to learn how to do it too
How can behaviour be learnt in SLT
Modelling
Reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement
What is modelling in SLT
Modelling involves observing and imitating another person (the model)
It requires identification with the model -where certain attractive qualities and characteristics are picked up on
If you identify with the model, you can copy and learn from their behaviour
The model will often be someone who is significant to the observer (e.g. a parent, a celebrity, a peer)
What is reinforcement in SLT
Positive and negative reinforcement makes behaviour more likely to happen again in the future
What is vicarious reinforcement
Seeing others being rewarded for a behaviour influences someone in whether they choose to imitate the behaviour
How is behaviour mediated through attention
To learn a behaviour from others, you have to pay attention
Once you notice your role model, you have to give your full attention and attend to their behaviour
How is behaviour mediated through retention
Also known as encoding
Not only do you need to pay attention at the time, but you need to remember what you observed to be able to model it
How is behaviour mediated through reproduction
You judge whether you have the ability to reproduce the behaviour
If you think you can reproduce the behaviour, you’re far more likely to do it
(e.g. if you think you can’t juggle with fire, you’re unlikely to copy a fire-juggler)
How is behaviour mediated through motivation
You evaluate the direct or indirect results of imitating the behaviour
If the behaviour results in a good reward, you’re more likely to imitate it
How is social learning theory a reductionist approach
It explains things through very basic cause-and-effect mechanisms
E.g. it explains all behaviour as a result of learning from others, and ignores any biological explanations
THIS IS ALSO USED AS A NEGATIVE EVALUATION
Method of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study
36 girls and 36 boys with a mean age of 52 months took part in the study
The study had matched ppts design (children were matched on ratings of aggressive behaviour shown at their nursery school) and had 3 conditions
In the first condition, children observed aggressive adult models playing with a bobo doll ( inflatable figures with a weighted body ) - e.g. hitting it with a mallet
In the second condition, children observed non-aggressive models playing with other toys and ignoring the bobo doll
The third condition was a control condition in which children had no exposure to the model
The children’s behaviour was then observed for 20 mins in a room containing aggressive toys ( e.g. a bobo doll, a mallet ) and non-aggressive toys ( e.g. a tea set, crayons )
Results of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study
Children exposed to aggressive models imitated a lot of their aggressive behaviour
Children in the non-aggressive and control conditions showed barely aggressive behaviour
Aggressive behaviour was slightly high in the control condition than in the non-aggressive condition
Conclusion of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study
Aggressive behaviour is learned through imitation of others behaving aggressively
Evaluation of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study
Study provides a evidence for social learning theory
Strict control of the variables, meaning that the results are likely to be reliable and the study can be replicated
Low ecological validity as the ppts weren’t in natural situation
Difficult to generalise results because a limited sample was studied - children were all from the same school
Study encouraged aggression in children - this could be an ethical problem
Comments on Bandura’s research
Bandura’s study shows reinforcement is not needed for learning, we can learn just be observing
However, seeing the model receive reinforcement may have an effect, e.g. if you see a model punished for an action, you’re unlikely to copy it
Bobo dolls are designed for aggressive play
Also, the children were shown how to play with the doll, the study may be a test for obedience rather than observational learning
Comments on behaviourism and SLT
Behaviourism and SLT emphasise learning as the cause of behaviour and so are on the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate
This has implications for society, e.g. children may imitate aggression from media role models, however potential genetic influences are not taken into account
Often difficult to conclude that observational learning has taken place
Sometimes, behaviours can be repeated a long time after they’ve been observed
Positive evaluation for social learning theory of real world application
Akers suggested that the probability of someone engaging in criminal activity increases when they are exposed to models who commit crime and identify with them
They could also develop the expectation of positive consequences of criminal behaviour
Positive evaluation for behaviourism of the importance of cognitive factors in learning
Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own
Humans and many animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions
Recognising the role of mediational processes gives a more comprehensive explanation of human learning
Negative evaluation for social learning theory of over - reliance on evidence of lab studies
Behaviours of children were observed in lab settings
Demand characteristics - please you or screw you affect could make these results invalid
Negative evaluation for social learning theory of underestimating the influence of biological factors
Boys were more aggressive in the Bobo doll experiments than girl - could’ve been due to higher levels of testosterone
Aggression in ppts who were transitioning to another gender
35 female-to-male and 15 male-to-female people completed questionnaires to assess proneness to aggression
Before and after receiving hormone treatment to change under
Female-to-male reported increased aggressive proneness
Flanagan: testosterone as a primary cause of aggression
However, lower levels of Serotonin and MAOA gene cause aggression as well
Positive evaluation for social learning theory of cultural differences in behaviour
Study found the Arapesh is an example of a non-aggressive culture in which aggression is not admired ( reinforced ) of modelled by adults
The Mundugmor (Biwat) show the opposite pattern, in which violence is the norm and status is determined by the amount of aggression shown
Tchambuil - women were impersonal and dominant and men were less responsible and emotionally dependent
Children understood their role in society and by gender
Positive evaluation of SLT that it is less determinist than the behavioural approach
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism
This says that we are influenced by our external environment and we exert influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
Whereas Skinner says that all behaviour is conditioned and we have no free will
How can video nasties play a role in social learning theory
Psychologists said that video nasties are more likely to frighten children than to make them aggressive towards others
They argue that social deprivation, child abuse and early exposure to violence at home leads to a violent personality in children
However, crimes such as such as the Jamie Bulger incident and Columbine shootings may have been influenced from the content of media such as: Clockwork Orange, Marilyn Manson and other violent influences
How can biology clash with the behavioural approach
Evidence shows that genetics can influence psychological features, e.g. genetics might contribute to the development of schizophrenia
Behaviourism still claims that learning, not genetics, is the cause of the majority of behaviours, even if some vague genetic causes can be found
