Approaches To Psychology: Behaviourism

Question 1

How did behaviourism start

Answer 1

Also called ‘ learning theory ‘
Started in America in early 1900s with John Watson
Watson felt that earlier psychological research wasn’t as scientific as it should be
e.g. Wundt studying consciousness using introspection: involves analysing your own experiences but he didn’t know if the ppts were telling the truth so introspection can never be properly scientific

Question 2

What were watson’s assumptions

Answer 2

They were made to base a scientific approach to psychology:
- Nearly all Behaviour is learned
- Animals and humans learn in same ways
- The ‘mind’ is irrelevant

Question 3

Watson’s first assumption of “ Nearly all behaviour is learnt “ meaning

Answer 3

The only exceptions are inborn reflexes (like blinking when dirt is in our eyes) and inborn instincts ( like running from danger)
All other actions have been learnt through conditioning

Question 4

Watson’s second assumption of “ Animals and humans learn in same ways “ meaning

Answer 4

Humans can do more complicated tasks than animals but the same principles by which we learn remain
e.g. us learning to drive a car uses the same principles as a cat learning to use a cat flap
This is based on the idea that we can form stimulus-response associations between stimuli and our actions
However, although we may both use conditioning, humans can be said to use other forms of learning also, such as social learning

Question 5

Watson’s third assumption of “ The ‘mind’ is irrelevant “ meaning

Answer 5

We can’t directly observe and measure a persons thinking
So we can only obtain measurable data by studying behaviour
However, although cognitive abilities cannot be directly, scientifically measured, they may give a more complete explanation of behaviour- as shown by social learning theory

Question 6

How can Watson’s first assumption be used to design research methods

Answer 6

Nearly all behaviour is learnt:
Understanding the principles of learning is the main research goal

Question 7

How can Watson’s second assumption be used to design research methods

Answer 7

Animals and humans learn in the same ways:
Animals can be used as research subjects because what is true for them should be also true for humans
Using animals has practical advantages e.g:
They are easy to keep
In many circumstances they don’t know they are being studied and so behave ‘naturally’
Procedure can be used with them which would be illegal with humans (e.g. giving shocks as punishment to see the effect on learning)

Question 8

How can Watson’s third assumption be used to design research methods

Answer 8

The ‘mind’ is irrelevant:
Behaviourists only observe quantifiable behaviour
e.g: how many times a lever is pressed, or how long it takes to solve a puzzle
Typical research therefore involves laboratory experiments on animals, to see how they learn

Question 9

What are the two types of conditioning

Answer 9

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

Question 10

Pavlov’s experiment with classical conditioning method

Answer 10

Ivan Pavlov noticed his dogs salivating before they got food
Realised they associated food with another stimulus so he experimented:

Whenever he gave his dogs food, he would ring a bell
When he tried this several times and then rang the bell alone without giving them food, the dogs would salivate

Question 11

Explanation of Pavlov’s dog experiment

Answer 11

When dogs see food, they salivate
This is an automatic, unlearned response - a reflex
The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR)
The bell had become a conditioned stimulus (CS), and salivation had become a conditioned response (CR)

Question 12

Meaning of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses

Answer 12

Unconditioned stimulus: the stimulus that causes the reflex response before conditioning. It is the stimulus that naturally produces the response

Conditioned stimulus: the stimulus which, after repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, produces the response

Unconditioned response: the innate ( reflexive ) response to a stimulus that has not been conditioned

Conditioned response: the response that occurs after exposure to the conditioned stimulus

Question 13

Analysis of Pavlov’s dogs’ behaviour before, during and after conditioning

Answer 13

Before conditioning
A certain stimulus, e.g. food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS) triggers a natural reflex, e.g. salivation (unconditioned response, UCR)

During conditioning
UCS repeatedly presented with another stimulus, e.g. a bell (neutral stimulus) triggers salivation (unconditioned response, UCR)

After conditioning
Over time the bell presented by itself (conditioned stimulus) triggers salivation (conditioned response, CR)

Question 14

How is the process of learning applicable to human development

Answer 14

Having its needs dealt with and gaining comfort naturally makes a baby happy. This isn’t learnt, this is an inborn reflex
So, comfort is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) producing happiness - unconditioned response (UCR)
The Mother talking to the baby while tending to its needs (UCS) makes the baby pair it’s happiness with the mothers voice, so her voice becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Eventually the sound of the mother’s voice alone will make the baby happy, even when it isn’t paired with having its needs met
Te CS (voice) now causes a conditioned response (CR) - the baby has learned to be pleased at the sound of its mother’s voice

Question 15

What are the principles of classical conditioning

Answer 15

Generalisation
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Higher order conditioning

Question 16

What is discrimination in classical conditioning

Answer 16

Discrimination:
When a stimuli similar to the original CS don’t produce the CR.
This can be achieved by withholding the UCS (e.g. food) following it

Question 17

What is generalisation in classical conditioning

Answer 17

Generalisation:
When stimuli similar to the original CS (e.g. a bell with a different pitch) produce the CR (e.g. salivating)

Question 18

What is extinction in classical conditioning

Answer 18

When the CR (e.g. salivating) isn’t produced as a result of the CS (e.g. bell)
This happens when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS (e.g. food) following it

Question 19

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

Answer 19

When’s previous extinct CR is produced in response to the CS
This happens when the CS is presented again after a period of time during which it’s not been used

Question 20

What is higher order conditioning in classical conditioning

Answer 20

When a new CS (e.g. a light) produces the CR because the animal associates it with the original CS.
This can be achieved by consistently presenting the new CS before the original CS

Question 21

What is positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 21

Positive reinforcement: when something desirable is obtained in response to doing something
e.g. giving a chocolate bar to a well behaved child to encourage good behaviour

Negative reinforcement: when something undesirable ( the negative reinforcer ) is removed when something happens
e.g. being told by the teacher that you’ll have no homework if you pass the test

Question 22

What did B.F Skinner do

Answer 22

B.F Skinner studied how animals can learn from the consequences of their actions
Since classical conditioning only applies to reflexive responses

Question 23

Method of Skinner’s study

Answer 23

Skinner created a ‘ Skinner box ‘, in which he placed one rat at a time
Each Skinner box contained a variety of different stimuli - a speaker, lights, a floor which gave an electric shock and a food dispenser which released food when a button was pressed
A hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box
The time taken for rats to learn that pressing the lever would release food was recorded

Question 24

Results for Skinners study

Answer 24

Initially the rat would run around the cage until it accidentally pressed the lever and it was rewarded with food
The more the rat was put back in the box, the quicker they got at learning where the lever was

Question 25

Conclusion for Skinner’s study

Answer 25

Rats can learn behaviour through operant conditioning
A behaviour such as pressing a lever can be positively reinforced by receiving food

Question 26

Evaluation for Skinner’s study

Answer 26

Skinner’s experiment has been hugely influential in promoting the idea behavioural psychology
However, the experiment did use animals, which means the results might not be generalisable to humans
His sample size was also small, which reduces reliability of results

Question 27

How did Skinner test for negative reinforcement

Answer 27

He showed that a rat could learn to prevent an electric shock by pressing the lever when a light came on

Question 28

Weaknesses of conditioning

Answer 28

There’s of evidence to show that conditioning can’t explain all human behaviour.
We also learn by observation
Most research involves animals so results can’t be generalised to humans
Different species have different capacities for learning by conditioning, some also learned by simple observation
Genetic seem to influence and limit what’s the different species can learn by conditioning
Lots of experiments into learning in animals may seem unethical. Nowadays, researchers must conduct a cost benefit analysis of whether it’s acceptable to use animals, the animals must be looked after

Question 29

Method of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner

Answer 29

Ppts was an 11 month old boy called Little Albert
Showed no fear while playing with white fluffy objects such as rabbits or rats
Researchers tried to create a conditioned response to these objects
A white rat was placed in front of Little Albert
As he reached for it, a metal bar was struck loudly behind his head
This was repeated twice at first, then 5 more times a week later

Question 30

Results of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner

Answer 30

When Little Albert was shown a rat, he would start to cry
This also extended to other white fluffy objects, such as a white Santa beard

Question 31

Conclusion of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner

Answer 31

A fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned in Little Albert, showing that abnormal behaviour can be learned

Question 32

Evaluation of the Little Albert experiment by Watson and Rayner

Answer 32

Experiment was unethical - could not be repeated today
Not everyone goes onto develop a fear or phobia after a negative situation, so learning theory can’t be the full story
Laboratory study, so lacks ecological validity as the situation was artificial
However, results support Pavlov’s idea of classical conditioning

Question 33

What has research done on humans for behaviourism shown

Answer 33

Plenty of research has been done on humans, which has shown things like:
Our genes influence our behaviour
We can learn in ways other than conditioning
Mental, cognitive processes are relevant to understanding behaviour

Question 34

Positive evaluation of strengths of the approach of behaviourism

Answer 34

Behaviourism is very scientific.
Theories are testable and supported by rigorous experimental research – Uses the experimental method→helps to establish cause and effect, objective
It influences all areas of psychology
Replicable→can be repeated due to high control so has reliability
Mainly quantitative data→easy to analyse
Useful applications to real life e.g. phobias, education and child rearing
It provides strong counter-arguments to the nature side of the ‘nature-
nurture’ debate

Question 35

Positive evaluation of operant conditioning in real life application

Answer 35

Token economy systems (OC): prisons and psychiatric hospitals
- Appropriate behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged
for privileges
CC- treatment of phobias – Little Albert

Question 36

Negative evaluation for mechanistic view of behaviour for behaviourism

Answer 36

Animals are seen as passive and machine like responders to their environment with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour
SLT and cognitive approach emphasised the importance of mental events at learning.
Process mediates between stimulus and response, suggests that people may play a much more active role in their own learning.
Applies less to humans than animals

Question 37

Negative evaluation of environmental determinism for behaviourism

Answer 37

All behaviours are determined by past experiences that have been conditioned.
What about free will? - Skinner said that “free will is an illusion”
Past history determines the outcome when something happens

Question 38

Negative evaluation of the limitations of the behaviouristic approach

Answer 38

Many forms of learning cannot be satisfactorily explained by classical and operant conditioning e.g. insight learning
Approach ignores important mental processes involved in learning
Reductionist→only takes into account nurture, rules out any influence of anything else
Deterministic→ignores free will
Lack of ecological validity due to highly controlled experiments → issues with generalisability
Ethical issues→not all research meets ethical guidelines
Lack of qualitative data→no thoughts or feelings known
Much data has been obtained from species such as rats, dogs and pigeons but the relevance of these findings to human behaviour is dubious

Question 39

What is social learning theory

Answer 39

A theory that agrees that people can learn through conditioning but claims that people can also learn from role models

Question 40

What mediational processes are involved in SLT

Answer 40

People must focus their attention on the role model, perceive what they do and remember it in order to learn how to do it too

Question 41

How can behaviour be learnt in SLT

Answer 41

Modelling
Reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement

Question 42

What is modelling in SLT

Answer 42

Modelling involves observing and imitating another person (the model)
It requires identification with the model -where certain attractive qualities and characteristics are picked up on
If you identify with the model, you can copy and learn from their behaviour
The model will often be someone who is significant to the observer (e.g. a parent, a celebrity, a peer)

Question 43

What is reinforcement in SLT

Answer 43

Positive and negative reinforcement makes behaviour more likely to happen again in the future

Question 44

What is vicarious reinforcement

Answer 44

Seeing others being rewarded for a behaviour influences someone in whether they choose to imitate the behaviour

Question 45

How is behaviour mediated through attention

Answer 45

To learn a behaviour from others, you have to pay attention
Once you notice your role model, you have to give your full attention and attend to their behaviour

Question 46

How is behaviour mediated through retention

Answer 46

Also known as encoding
Not only do you need to pay attention at the time, but you need to remember what you observed to be able to model it

Question 47

How is behaviour mediated through reproduction

Answer 47

You judge whether you have the ability to reproduce the behaviour
If you think you can reproduce the behaviour, you’re far more likely to do it
(e.g. if you think you can’t juggle with fire, you’re unlikely to copy a fire-juggler)

Question 48

How is behaviour mediated through motivation

Answer 48

You evaluate the direct or indirect results of imitating the behaviour
If the behaviour results in a good reward, you’re more likely to imitate it

Question 49

How is social learning theory a reductionist approach

Answer 49

It explains things through very basic cause-and-effect mechanisms
E.g. it explains all behaviour as a result of learning from others, and ignores any biological explanations
THIS IS ALSO USED AS A NEGATIVE EVALUATION

Question 50

Method of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study

Answer 50

36 girls and 36 boys with a mean age of 52 months took part in the study
The study had matched ppts design (children were matched on ratings of aggressive behaviour shown at their nursery school) and had 3 conditions
In the first condition, children observed aggressive adult models playing with a bobo doll ( inflatable figures with a weighted body ) - e.g. hitting it with a mallet
In the second condition, children observed non-aggressive models playing with other toys and ignoring the bobo doll
The third condition was a control condition in which children had no exposure to the model
The children’s behaviour was then observed for 20 mins in a room containing aggressive toys ( e.g. a bobo doll, a mallet ) and non-aggressive toys ( e.g. a tea set, crayons )

Question 51

Results of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study

Answer 51

Children exposed to aggressive models imitated a lot of their aggressive behaviour
Children in the non-aggressive and control conditions showed barely aggressive behaviour
Aggressive behaviour was slightly high in the control condition than in the non-aggressive condition

Question 52

Conclusion of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study

Answer 52

Aggressive behaviour is learned through imitation of others behaving aggressively

Question 53

Evaluation of Bandura’s imitation of aggressive models study

Answer 53

Study provides a evidence for social learning theory
Strict control of the variables, meaning that the results are likely to be reliable and the study can be replicated
Low ecological validity as the ppts weren’t in natural situation
Difficult to generalise results because a limited sample was studied - children were all from the same school
Study encouraged aggression in children - this could be an ethical problem

Question 54

Comments on Bandura’s research

Answer 54

Bandura’s study shows reinforcement is not needed for learning, we can learn just be observing
However, seeing the model receive reinforcement may have an effect, e.g. if you see a model punished for an action, you’re unlikely to copy it

Bobo dolls are designed for aggressive play
Also, the children were shown how to play with the doll, the study may be a test for obedience rather than observational learning

Question 55

Comments on behaviourism and SLT

Answer 55

Behaviourism and SLT emphasise learning as the cause of behaviour and so are on the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate
This has implications for society, e.g. children may imitate aggression from media role models, however potential genetic influences are not taken into account

Often difficult to conclude that observational learning has taken place
Sometimes, behaviours can be repeated a long time after they’ve been observed

Question 56

Positive evaluation for social learning theory of real world application

Answer 56

Akers suggested that the probability of someone engaging in criminal activity increases when they are exposed to models who commit crime and identify with them
They could also develop the expectation of positive consequences of criminal behaviour

Question 57

Positive evaluation for behaviourism of the importance of cognitive factors in learning

Answer 57

Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own

Humans and many animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions

Recognising the role of mediational processes gives a more comprehensive explanation of human learning

Question 58

Negative evaluation for social learning theory of over - reliance on evidence of lab studies

Answer 58

Behaviours of children were observed in lab settings
Demand characteristics - please you or screw you affect could make these results invalid

Question 59

Negative evaluation for social learning theory of underestimating the influence of biological factors

Answer 59

Boys were more aggressive in the Bobo doll experiments than girl - could’ve been due to higher levels of testosterone
Aggression in ppts who were transitioning to another gender
35 female-to-male and 15 male-to-female people completed questionnaires to assess proneness to aggression
Before and after receiving hormone treatment to change under
Female-to-male reported increased aggressive proneness
Flanagan: testosterone as a primary cause of aggression
However, lower levels of Serotonin and MAOA gene cause aggression as well

Question 60

Positive evaluation for social learning theory of cultural differences in behaviour

Answer 60

Study found the Arapesh is an example of a non-aggressive culture in which aggression is not admired ( reinforced ) of modelled by adults
The Mundugmor (Biwat) show the opposite pattern, in which violence is the norm and status is determined by the amount of aggression shown
Tchambuil - women were impersonal and dominant and men were less responsible and emotionally dependent
Children understood their role in society and by gender

Question 61

Positive evaluation of SLT that it is less determinist than the behavioural approach

Answer 61

Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism
This says that we are influenced by our external environment and we exert influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
Whereas Skinner says that all behaviour is conditioned and we have no free will

Question 62

How can video nasties play a role in social learning theory

Answer 62

Psychologists said that video nasties are more likely to frighten children than to make them aggressive towards others
They argue that social deprivation, child abuse and early exposure to violence at home leads to a violent personality in children
However, crimes such as such as the Jamie Bulger incident and Columbine shootings may have been influenced from the content of media such as: Clockwork Orange, Marilyn Manson and other violent influences

Question 63

How can biology clash with the behavioural approach

Answer 63

Evidence shows that genetics can influence psychological features, e.g. genetics might contribute to the development of schizophrenia
Behaviourism still claims that learning, not genetics, is the cause of the majority of behaviours, even if some vague genetic causes can be found