Research Methods Flashcards
What is experimental method?
The manipulation of the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependant variable (laboratory, field, natural or quasi)
What is the aim of experimental method?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study (the theory basically)
e.g. “To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative”
What is the hypothesis of experimental method?
A statement that is made at the start of the study that Clearly states the relationship between the two variables
e.g. “Drinking Speedup causes people to become more talkative”
What are the two types of hypothesis in experimental method
Non- directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis
What is non- directional hypothesis in experimental method
States there is a difference between conditions or groups but the nature of the difference (less/more, slower/faster) is not specified
e.g. People who drink Speedup differ in terms of talkativeness than people who don’t
What is directional hypothesis in experimental method?
States the difference between two conditions or two groups of people.
What are independent variables
Variable that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured
e.g Age
What are dependant variables
It is something that depends on other factors.
Any effect on the DV should be caused by a change in the IV
e.g test scores (can be changed by IV such as how much you study)
What is operationalisation?
turning abstract ideas into measurable observations
What are extraneous variables
any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study.
What are confounding variables
A kind of extraneous variable that is in tune with the effects the IV would of had on the DV
-So it is hard to tell if the change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
What are demand characteristics?
participants change their behaviours based on what they think the research is looking for
What are investigator effects?
the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious)
that effects the outcome of the DV
What is Randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control investigator effects and deciding which order participants go in
e.g group A , group B
What is Standardisation?
Using the same formalised procedures, environment and instructions for all participants in a study.
What are experimental designs?
The way participants are used in experiments
(Arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions)
What are independent groups in experimental design?
Participants are allocated into different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
What are repeated measures in experimental design?
All participants take part in all conditions conditions of the experiment
What are matched pairs in experimental design?
Pairs of participants are first matched based on variables that may affect the DV (such two people of the same age)
-Then one member of each pair is placed into the control group while the other is placed in the experimental group.
-Reduces participant variables
Give one Limitation of independent groups design
individual differences in participants can sometimes lead to differences in the groups’ results.
-So its hard to tell if it was the IV or the differences contributing to the DV
Give one strength of independent groups design
Better than repeated measures = If participants complete the experiment twice, they might guess the purpose of the experiment, and change their behaviour (demand characteristics)
Give two limitations of repeated measures
Demand characteristics = participants complete the experiment twice, they might guess the purpose of the experiment, and change their behaviour.
Repeating the tasks may cause boredom or tiredness making them less likely to contribute
Give one strength of repeated measures
Time effective = fewer participants are needed therefore less recruiting time
Give one limitation of Matched pairs
Participants can never be matched exactly, meaning there are still characteristics that could effect the DV (participant variables or not fully reduced)
Give one strength of Matched pairs
Participants only take part in one condition so demand characteristics are reduced
What are the four types of experiment
Laboratory
Natural
Field
Quasi
What are Laboratory experiments
Experiments conducted in highly controlled environment (not always a lab)
-Whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV
Give one strength of Laboratory experiments
cause and effect can be established = It is highly controlled, whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV
high internal validity.
Give one limitation of laboratory experiments
Lacks generalisability = The environment is artificial, unlike everyday life.
(low external validity)
What are Field experiments
Experiment that takes place in a natural setting
-Whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV
Give one strength of field experiments
high external validity = More authentic behaviour, especially when participants are unaware they are being studied
Give one limitation of field experiments
extraneous variables are hard to control, also difficult to replicate
What are Natural experiments
An experiment where the the researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it (natural)
e.g Before and after a natural disaster
The DV is decided by the researcher and effect is still recorded
Give one strength of natural experiments
High external validity - Involve real factors of the world as they happen
Give one limitation of natural experiments
Naturally occurring events happen very rarely reducing opportunities for research , this may also limit generalising findings to other similar situations
What are Quasi- experiments
contains an IV thats a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age).
-The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV).
Give one strength of Quasi- experiments
Replicable = carried out under controlled conditions
Give one limitation of Quasi- experiments
Confounding variables = Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions.
What is sampling?
Target population =A group of people the researcher wants to study.
Sample = Aim to choose people representative of the target population (which can be hard)
Different sampling techniques are put in place to increase representativeness
What are the 5 types of sampling
Random
systematic
stratified
opportunity
volunteer
What is Random sampling?
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected;
1. Obtain a complete list of members in target population
2. All names on list are given a number
3. randomiser picks numbers
Give one strength of Random sampling
Random so researcher bias is minimised
Give one limitation of Random sampling
Group may still be unrepresentative of target population
What is Systematic sampling?
When every nth member of the target population is selected
e.g. every 5th pupil on the register.
What is one limitation of systematic sampling
Time consuming = people may in the end refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample
What is one strength of systematic sampling?
Objective = Once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence.
What is stratified sampling?
The sample reflects the porportions of subgroups (strata) within the target population
1. Identity the different strata that makes up the target population
2. The proportions needed for the sample to be representative
3. participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling
What is one strength of stratified sampling
Representative = accurately reflects the composition of the public
What is one limitation of stratified sampling
It cannot possibly reflect all the ways in which people are different
so complete representation is not possible
What is opportunity sampling?
Selects anyone who happens to be willing and is available at the time of the study
-May ask around such as in the street.
What is one strength of opportunity sampling
Time effective = compared to other methods such as stratified sampling
What is one limitation of opportunity sampling
Unrepresentative of target population so findings cant be generalised
What is volunteer sampling?
Participants selecting themselves to be part of sample
-Can be from adverts , newspapers, or simply raising their hand when a researcher asks
Give one strength of volunteer sampling
Collecting a sample is easy and less time consuming as they come to the researcher
Give one limitation of volunteer sampling
Volunteer bias - those who volunteer are more likely to be curious and wanting to please the researcher
What are ethical issues
Arise when the rights, safety and well being of participants are in conflict
What are the 5 main types of ethical issues
privacy and confidentiality
Informed consent
Deception
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
What is informed consent?
Participants should know;
the aims and procedures of the research
their rights
what their data will be used for
-They will then make a judgement without being coerced
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants
What is protection from harm?
Participants should not be placed at any more risks than they would in their daily lives.
-They should be protected from physical and psychological harm
-Reminded they have the right to withdraw
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Privacy = Participants have the right to control information about themselves
Confidentiality = the right to have any personal data protected
How does the BPS code of conduct deal with ethical issues?
British psychological society = Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting a study;
(worst scenario they can lose their job)
Matched to the 4 ethical issues
What is the Cost- benefit approach?
Guidelines are implemented by ethic committees who use the Cost- benefit approach
-They weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether or not they should go ahead
Give 2 ways of how informed consent is dealt with
-Consent form containing relevant information
-Parental consent for those under 16
What are other ways of gaining informed consent
Presumptive consent - A similar group of people think its acceptable so researcher presumes original participants give consent
Prior general consent - Participants give consent to take part in different studies including one that involves deception, in turn consenting to be deceived
Retrospective consent - Participants are asked for consent during debriefing after already taken part because they may not be aware of their participation
Give 2 ways of dealing with deception and protection from harm
Debrief = participants are made aware of the true aims of the study or other details withheld from them (such as another group)
Right to withdraw = right to withhold data
Give 2 ways of dealing with confidentiality -
Researchers refer to participant using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation
During debrief participants are remined their data will be protected
What are Pilot studies?
A small scale trial run of an actual investigation
-Aim is to check procedures, measuring scales materials etc
-Also allows researcher to make any changes necessary
What is the single blind procedure?
Participants are not told of the aim of the research or other important details at the beginning of the study.
-As they may create demand characteristics or confounding variables
What is the double blind procedure
Both participant’s and researcher are not aware of the aims of the investigation
-often a third party conducts the investigation without knowing its main purpose.
Highlight the difference between control groups and experimental groups/ conditions
Control group or conditions = control is used in a study for the purpose of comparison
Experimental group or conditions = can conclude the DV is due to the IV
What are the 6 types of observation
Naturalistic observation
Controlled observation
Covert observation
Overt observation
Participant observation
Non-Participant observation
What is Naturalistic observation
Take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur
What is a Controlled observation
Watching behaviour within a controlled environment’s
where some variables can be controlled e.g
confounding or extraneous
Strange situation is a good example (two- way mirror)
What is a Covert observation
Participants are unaware they are being observed (no informed consent)
What is Overt observation
Participants are aware they are being observed and have given informed consent
What is participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing
What is non- Participant observation
The researcher separate from those they are studying.
What is a limitation of all observational techniques?
Observer bias
Give one brief strength and limitation of Naturalistic observation’s
S - High external validity so can be generalised to every day life
L - Not replicable
Give one brief strength of Controlled observations
Replicable due to the control of variables
Give one brief strength and limitation of Covert observations
S - No demand characteristics
L - Ethical issues, no privacy
Give one brief strength of Overt observations
Ethically acceptable as they have given informed consent
Give one brief strength and limitation of Participant observations
S - Increased insight
L - May loose objectivity
Give on brief strength and limitation of Non-Participant observation
S- Remains Objective
L- Not as much insight
What are behavioural categories? in Observational design
In order to produce a structured record of what the researcher sees or hears they break up the target behaviour into a set of behavioural categories (made measurable and observable )
e.g. target behaviour of affection broken down into kissing, smiling, holding hands etc
What is event sampling in observational design?
researcher records how many times target behaviour (from behavioural catergories) occurs
What is time sampling?
researcher records behaviour in a fixed time frame
e.g. every 60 seconds
What is inter- observer reliability
To reduce bias observations should be carried out with at least two researchers.
1.Observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories
- Observe same behaviour at the same time
- Compare data and discuss any differences
- Inter observer reliability is calculated by correlating each observations made.
What is a strength of behavioural categories
Make data collection more structured and objective
What is a limitation of behavioural categories
Categories should be exclusive and not overlap
e.g. “smiling” and “grinning” would be very difficult to discern
What is a strength of Event sampling in observational design
Useful when the target behaviour happens quite infrequently
and could be missed if time sampling was used
What is a limitation of Event sampling in observational design
If the particular behaviour is too complex the observer may overlook important details
What is a strength of Time sampling in observational design
Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made
What is a limitation of Time sampling in observational design
Those instances the behaviour is recorded may not catch the behaviour at all
What are the two types of self- report techniques
Questionnaire
interviews
What is a self report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state their feelings, behaviours, opinions, experiences about a topic
What is a Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to asses a persons thoughts and/or experiences
What are the two types of questionnaire
Open questions
Closed questions
What do Open questions provide in a questionnaires
-Doesn’t have a fixed range of answers, respondents are free to answer any way they wish
-Produces Qualitative data
What do closed questions provide in questionnaires
-Has a fixed number of responses
-Provides Quantative data
Give two brief strengths of questionnaires
-Cost effective, can gather large amounts of data quickly because it can be distributed to large numbers of people
-The data is straight forward to analyse and compare (e.g. using graphs or charts)
Give two brief limitations of questionnaires
- Demand characteristic called social desirability bias
-Response bias = When respondents put the same answer too many time (e.g. always ticking yes)
What are the 3 types of interviews
Structured interviews
unstructured interviews
semi - structured interviews
What are structured interviews
- Made up of pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
What are unstructured interviews
- Works like a conversation, no set of questions just a general aim of what topic will be discussed
What are semi- structured interviews
- List of questions have been worked our in advance but interviewers are free to ask follow up questions based on previous answers
What is a strength of Structured interviews
Replicable - due to standardised format
What is a limitation of structured interviews
Less qualitative data due to lack of elaboration
What is a strength of Unstructured interviews
Gains more insight as researcher can ask follow up questions
What is a limitation of Unstructured interviews
Social desirability
What are the 3 types of self report design for questionnaires (specifically closed questions)
Likert scales
Rating scales
Fixed- choice option
What is a Likert scale
One in which the respondent indicates their agreement
-Ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree
What is a rating scale
Similar to Likert scales but instead of strongly disagree to strong agree it represents their feeling on a certain topic
e.g. tv show (very entertaining - not entertaining)
What is a fixed choice option
A list of possible options that respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them
What is the design for interviews?
-Interview schedule including a list of questions the interviewer intends to cover
-This should be standardised
-Notes taken during and analysed later
-Can be group or single participant
-In a quiet room away from others
What are 5 ways to write good questions
Overuse of Jargon
Emotive language
leading questions
Double- barrelled questions
double negatives
What is correlation?
The association between two co variables, plotted on a scattergram
What are the 3 types of correlation
Positive
Negative
No correlation
What is a positive correlation
As one co variable increases so does the other one
What is a negative correlation
As one co variable increases the other decreases
What is No correlation
No relationship between co variables
What is the difference between correlations and experiments
E - manipulation of independent variable effects the dependant variable
C - There is no manipulation of one variable and therefore cause and effect cant be established
What are 2 brief strengths of correlations
Secondary data can be used which means they are less time consuming
Used as a starting point for researchers to asses the relationship of two variables before a study
What are 2 brief limitations of correlations
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect, only tells us how variables are related not why
May be misinterpreted - just because two things have a relationship doesn’t mean one variable was the cause of it
What is Qualitative data and quantitative data
Quantitative - Data that is expressed in words (although can be converted to quantitative
Qualitative - Data that can be counted, expressed numerically
What is one strength and one limitation of Qualitative data
S - Provides rich detail that is useful for more insightful data
L - Conclusions cannot be summarised statistically so is usually left to the researchers own interpreters which can be bias
What is one strength and one limitation of Quantitative data
S - Easy to analyse and compare
L- less detailed and narrower in meaning
What is Primary data
Information gathered first hand by the researcher for the purpose of the investigation
What is Secondary data
Data obtained by someone other than the researcher conducting the research
-before the researcher conducts their research
Give one strength and one limitation of primary data
S - Researcher can ensure its authentic and have more control
L - Time consuming to conduct an experiment
Give on strength and one limitation of secondary data
S - its cost effective and requires minimal effort
L - Cant ensure the data obtained is reliable
What are the 3 measures of central tendency
Mean
Mode
Median
What are the 2 measures of dispersion
Range
Standard deviation
Give one strength and one limitation of Mean
S - includes all of the scores in the data in the calculation making it more representative of the data as a whole
L - The mean is distorted by extreme values
Give one strength and one limitation of Median
S - Unlike mean, extreme scores don’t affect it
L - Important higher and lower values are ignored
Give one strength and one limitation of Mode
S - useful for data measuring most frequent accuring
L - Not representative of the whole data set
Give one strength and one limitation of Range
S - its easy to calculate
L - only takes into account the most extreme values so is unrepresentative of whole data
What is standard deviation?
A single value that tells us how far scores deviate from the mean
-The larger the deviation the greater the spread within a set of data
In terms of experiment;
Large deviation = Suggests not all participants were affected by the IV in the same way because the data is widely spread
Low deviation means the opposite (tightly clustered data = affected in a similar way)
Give one strength and one limitation of Standard deviation
S - a much more precise measure of dispersion than the range as it includes all data
L - Like the mean, it can be distorted by one extreme value
What are the 3 main types of graph used to show quantitative data
Scattergrams
Bar chart
Histogram
What is a bar chart?
A graph in which the frequency of each condition is represented by the height of the bars
What is a histogram?
a graph where the area (not just height) represents frequency
-The x axis must start at a true zero
What is a scattergram
represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co variables ( x and y axis represents each one)
What are the 2 types of distributions
Normal distribution
Skewed distribution ( positive and negative skew)
What is normal distribution?
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped curve. the median mean and mode are located at the highest peak
If you measure certain variables such as the height of people in a school, the frequency of these measurements should form a bell shaped curve, Most people sitting in the middle and very few at the extreme ends
What are skewed distributions?
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where data clusters to one end
Some data from measurements may produce measurements that skew to one side
What is a positive skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the right side .
What is a negative skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the left
What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by a small group others in the same field
-They are unknown to the researcher
-Ensure any research intended for publication is of high quality
What are the 3 aims of peer review
- Allocate research funding (peer evaluation takes place to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research subject)
- To validate the quality and relevance of research (all elements are assessed e.g. hypothesis and conclusions)
- Suggest amendments or improvements
What are 2 limitations of peer review
Anonymity - If anonymity is not maintained experts with a conflict of interest might not approve research to further their own reputation or career.
Established scientists are the ones who peer review, findings that chime with current “status quo” within scientific fields
In what two ways has psychological research implicated the economy
- Attachment research into the role of the father
- The development of treatments for mental disorders
In what way has attachment research into the role of the father implicated the economy
-Has shown both parents are equally capable of providing emotional support needed for development
-This may promote flexible working arrangements within the family
-Means more couples share childcare responsibility
-They are able to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy
In what way has the development of treatments for mental disorders implicated the economy
-A third of all work absences are caused by mental disorders
-Psychological research into causes and treatments has played a role in supporting the workforce
How do you convert a percentage to a decimal?
Remove the % sign and move the decimal point 2 places to the left
e.g.
37% = 37.0 = 0.37
