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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is experimental method?

A

The manipulation of the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependant variable (laboratory, field, natural or quasi)

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2
Q

What is the aim of experimental method?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study (the theory basically)

e.g. “To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative”

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3
Q

What is the hypothesis of experimental method?

A

A statement that is made at the start of the study that Clearly states the relationship between the two variables

e.g. “Drinking Speedup causes people to become more talkative”

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4
Q

What are the two types of hypothesis in experimental method

A

Non- directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis

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5
Q

What is non- directional hypothesis in experimental method

A

States there is a difference between conditions or groups but the nature of the difference (less/more, slower/faster) is not specified

e.g. People who drink Speedup differ in terms of talkativeness than people who don’t

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6
Q

What is directional hypothesis in experimental method?

A

States the difference between two conditions or two groups of people.

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7
Q

What are independent variables

A

Variable that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured
e.g Age

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8
Q

What are dependant variables

A

It is something that depends on other factors.
Any effect on the DV should be caused by a change in the IV
e.g test scores (can be changed by IV such as how much you study)

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9
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

turning abstract ideas into measurable observations

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10
Q

What are extraneous variables

A

any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study.

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11
Q

What are confounding variables

A

A kind of extraneous variable that is in tune with the effects the IV would of had on the DV
-So it is hard to tell if the change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable

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12
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

participants change their behaviours based on what they think the research is looking for

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13
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious)
that effects the outcome of the DV

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14
Q

What is Randomisation?

A

The use of chance methods to control investigator effects and deciding which order participants go in
e.g group A , group B

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15
Q

What is Standardisation?

A

Using the same formalised procedures, environment and instructions for all participants in a study.

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16
Q

What are experimental designs?

A

The way participants are used in experiments
(Arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions)

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17
Q

What are independent groups in experimental design?

A

Participants are allocated into different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

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18
Q

What are repeated measures in experimental design?

A

All participants take part in all conditions conditions of the experiment

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19
Q

What are matched pairs in experimental design?

A

Pairs of participants are first matched based on variables that may affect the DV (such two people of the same age)
-Then one member of each pair is placed into the control group while the other is placed in the experimental group.
-Reduces participant variables

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20
Q

Give one Limitation of independent groups design

A

individual differences in participants can sometimes lead to differences in the groups’ results.
-So its hard to tell if it was the IV or the differences contributing to the DV

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21
Q

Give one strength of independent groups design

A

Better than repeated measures = If participants complete the experiment twice, they might guess the purpose of the experiment, and change their behaviour (demand characteristics)

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22
Q

Give two limitations of repeated measures

A

Demand characteristics = participants complete the experiment twice, they might guess the purpose of the experiment, and change their behaviour.

Repeating the tasks may cause boredom or tiredness making them less likely to contribute

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23
Q

Give one strength of repeated measures

A

Time effective = fewer participants are needed therefore less recruiting time

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24
Q

Give one limitation of Matched pairs

A

Participants can never be matched exactly, meaning there are still characteristics that could effect the DV (participant variables or not fully reduced)

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25
Q

Give one strength of Matched pairs

A

Participants only take part in one condition so demand characteristics are reduced

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26
Q

What are the four types of experiment

A

Laboratory
Natural
Field
Quasi

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27
Q

What are Laboratory experiments

A

Experiments conducted in highly controlled environment (not always a lab)
-Whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV

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28
Q

Give one strength of Laboratory experiments

A

cause and effect can be established = It is highly controlled, whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV
high internal validity.

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29
Q

Give one limitation of laboratory experiments

A

Lacks generalisability = The environment is artificial, unlike everyday life.
(low external validity)

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30
Q

What are Field experiments

A

Experiment that takes place in a natural setting
-Whereby the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect it has on the DV

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31
Q

Give one strength of field experiments

A

high external validity = More authentic behaviour, especially when participants are unaware they are being studied

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32
Q

Give one limitation of field experiments

A

extraneous variables are hard to control, also difficult to replicate

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33
Q

What are Natural experiments

A

An experiment where the the researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it (natural)
e.g Before and after a natural disaster
The DV is decided by the researcher and effect is still recorded

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34
Q

Give one strength of natural experiments

A

High external validity - Involve real factors of the world as they happen

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35
Q

Give one limitation of natural experiments

A

Naturally occurring events happen very rarely reducing opportunities for research , this may also limit generalising findings to other similar situations

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36
Q

What are Quasi- experiments

A

contains an IV thats a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age).
-The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV).

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37
Q

Give one strength of Quasi- experiments

A

Replicable = carried out under controlled conditions

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38
Q

Give one limitation of Quasi- experiments

A

Confounding variables = Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions.

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39
Q

What is sampling?

A

Target population =A group of people the researcher wants to study.

Sample = Aim to choose people representative of the target population (which can be hard)

Different sampling techniques are put in place to increase representativeness

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40
Q

What are the 5 types of sampling

A

Random
systematic
stratified
opportunity
volunteer

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41
Q

What is Random sampling?

A

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected;
1. Obtain a complete list of members in target population
2. All names on list are given a number
3. randomiser picks numbers

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42
Q

Give one strength of Random sampling

A

Random so researcher bias is minimised

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43
Q

Give one limitation of Random sampling

A

Group may still be unrepresentative of target population

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44
Q

What is Systematic sampling?

A

When every nth member of the target population is selected
e.g. every 5th pupil on the register.

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45
Q

What is one limitation of systematic sampling

A

Time consuming = people may in the end refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample

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46
Q

What is one strength of systematic sampling?

A

Objective = Once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence.

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47
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

The sample reflects the porportions of subgroups (strata) within the target population
1. Identity the different strata that makes up the target population
2. The proportions needed for the sample to be representative
3. participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling

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48
Q

What is one strength of stratified sampling

A

Representative = accurately reflects the composition of the public

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49
Q

What is one limitation of stratified sampling

A

It cannot possibly reflect all the ways in which people are different
so complete representation is not possible

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50
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selects anyone who happens to be willing and is available at the time of the study
-May ask around such as in the street.

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51
Q

What is one strength of opportunity sampling

A

Time effective = compared to other methods such as stratified sampling

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52
Q

What is one limitation of opportunity sampling

A

Unrepresentative of target population so findings cant be generalised

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53
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Participants selecting themselves to be part of sample
-Can be from adverts , newspapers, or simply raising their hand when a researcher asks

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54
Q

Give one strength of volunteer sampling

A

Collecting a sample is easy and less time consuming as they come to the researcher

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55
Q

Give one limitation of volunteer sampling

A

Volunteer bias - those who volunteer are more likely to be curious and wanting to please the researcher

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56
Q

What are ethical issues

A

Arise when the rights, safety and well being of participants are in conflict

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57
Q

What are the 5 main types of ethical issues

A

privacy and confidentiality
Informed consent
Deception
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm

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58
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Participants should know;
the aims and procedures of the research
their rights
what their data will be used for
-They will then make a judgement without being coerced

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59
Q

What is deception?

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants

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60
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Participants should not be placed at any more risks than they would in their daily lives.
-They should be protected from physical and psychological harm
-Reminded they have the right to withdraw

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61
Q

What is privacy and confidentiality?

A

Privacy = Participants have the right to control information about themselves

Confidentiality = the right to have any personal data protected

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62
Q

How does the BPS code of conduct deal with ethical issues?

A

British psychological society = Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting a study;
(worst scenario they can lose their job)

Matched to the 4 ethical issues

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63
Q

What is the Cost- benefit approach?

A

Guidelines are implemented by ethic committees who use the Cost- benefit approach
-They weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether or not they should go ahead

64
Q

Give 2 ways of how informed consent is dealt with

A

-Consent form containing relevant information
-Parental consent for those under 16

65
Q

What are other ways of gaining informed consent

A

Presumptive consent - A similar group of people think its acceptable so researcher presumes original participants give consent

Prior general consent - Participants give consent to take part in different studies including one that involves deception, in turn consenting to be deceived

Retrospective consent - Participants are asked for consent during debriefing after already taken part because they may not be aware of their participation

66
Q

Give 2 ways of dealing with deception and protection from harm

A

Debrief = participants are made aware of the true aims of the study or other details withheld from them (such as another group)

Right to withdraw = right to withhold data

67
Q

Give 2 ways of dealing with confidentiality -

A

Researchers refer to participant using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation

During debrief participants are remined their data will be protected

68
Q

What are Pilot studies?

A

A small scale trial run of an actual investigation
-Aim is to check procedures, measuring scales materials etc
-Also allows researcher to make any changes necessary

69
Q

What is the single blind procedure?

A

Participants are not told of the aim of the research or other important details at the beginning of the study.
-As they may create demand characteristics or confounding variables

70
Q

What is the double blind procedure

A

Both participant’s and researcher are not aware of the aims of the investigation
-often a third party conducts the investigation without knowing its main purpose.

71
Q

Highlight the difference between control groups and experimental groups/ conditions

A

Control group or conditions = control is used in a study for the purpose of comparison

Experimental group or conditions = can conclude the DV is due to the IV

72
Q

What are the 6 types of observation

A

Naturalistic observation
Controlled observation
Covert observation
Overt observation
Participant observation
Non-Participant observation

73
Q

What is Naturalistic observation

A

Take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur

74
Q

What is a Controlled observation

A

Watching behaviour within a controlled environment’s
where some variables can be controlled e.g
confounding or extraneous
Strange situation is a good example (two- way mirror)

75
Q

What is a Covert observation

A

Participants are unaware they are being observed (no informed consent)

76
Q

What is Overt observation

A

Participants are aware they are being observed and have given informed consent

77
Q

What is participant observation

A

The researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing

78
Q

What is non- Participant observation

A

The researcher separate from those they are studying.

79
Q

What is a limitation of all observational techniques?

A

Observer bias

80
Q

Give one brief strength and limitation of Naturalistic observation’s

A

S - High external validity so can be generalised to every day life

L - Not replicable

81
Q

Give one brief strength of Controlled observations

A

Replicable due to the control of variables

82
Q

Give one brief strength and limitation of Covert observations

A

S - No demand characteristics

L - Ethical issues, no privacy

83
Q

Give one brief strength of Overt observations

A

Ethically acceptable as they have given informed consent

84
Q

Give one brief strength and limitation of Participant observations

A

S - Increased insight

L - May loose objectivity

85
Q

Give on brief strength and limitation of Non-Participant observation

A

S- Remains Objective

L- Not as much insight

86
Q

What are behavioural categories? in Observational design

A

In order to produce a structured record of what the researcher sees or hears they break up the target behaviour into a set of behavioural categories (made measurable and observable )

e.g. target behaviour of affection broken down into kissing, smiling, holding hands etc

87
Q

What is event sampling in observational design?

A

researcher records how many times target behaviour (from behavioural catergories) occurs

88
Q

What is time sampling?

A

researcher records behaviour in a fixed time frame
e.g. every 60 seconds

89
Q

What is inter- observer reliability

A

To reduce bias observations should be carried out with at least two researchers.

1.Observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories

  1. Observe same behaviour at the same time
  2. Compare data and discuss any differences
  3. Inter observer reliability is calculated by correlating each observations made.
90
Q

What is a strength of behavioural categories

A

Make data collection more structured and objective

91
Q

What is a limitation of behavioural categories

A

Categories should be exclusive and not overlap
e.g. “smiling” and “grinning” would be very difficult to discern

92
Q

What is a strength of Event sampling in observational design

A

Useful when the target behaviour happens quite infrequently
and could be missed if time sampling was used

93
Q

What is a limitation of Event sampling in observational design

A

If the particular behaviour is too complex the observer may overlook important details

94
Q

What is a strength of Time sampling in observational design

A

Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made

95
Q

What is a limitation of Time sampling in observational design

A

Those instances the behaviour is recorded may not catch the behaviour at all

96
Q

What are the two types of self- report techniques

A

Questionnaire
interviews

97
Q

What is a self report technique

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state their feelings, behaviours, opinions, experiences about a topic

98
Q

What is a Questionnaire

A

A set of written questions used to asses a persons thoughts and/or experiences

99
Q

What are the two types of questionnaire

A

Open questions
Closed questions

100
Q

What do Open questions provide in a questionnaires

A

-Doesn’t have a fixed range of answers, respondents are free to answer any way they wish
-Produces Qualitative data

101
Q

What do closed questions provide in questionnaires

A

-Has a fixed number of responses
-Provides Quantative data

102
Q

Give two brief strengths of questionnaires

A

-Cost effective, can gather large amounts of data quickly because it can be distributed to large numbers of people

-The data is straight forward to analyse and compare (e.g. using graphs or charts)

103
Q

Give two brief limitations of questionnaires

A
  • Demand characteristic called social desirability bias

-Response bias = When respondents put the same answer too many time (e.g. always ticking yes)

104
Q

What are the 3 types of interviews

A

Structured interviews
unstructured interviews
semi - structured interviews

105
Q

What are structured interviews

A
  • Made up of pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
106
Q

What are unstructured interviews

A
  • Works like a conversation, no set of questions just a general aim of what topic will be discussed
107
Q

What are semi- structured interviews

A
  • List of questions have been worked our in advance but interviewers are free to ask follow up questions based on previous answers
108
Q

What is a strength of Structured interviews

A

Replicable - due to standardised format

109
Q

What is a limitation of structured interviews

A

Less qualitative data due to lack of elaboration

110
Q

What is a strength of Unstructured interviews

A

Gains more insight as researcher can ask follow up questions

111
Q

What is a limitation of Unstructured interviews

A

Social desirability

112
Q

What are the 3 types of self report design for questionnaires (specifically closed questions)

A

Likert scales
Rating scales
Fixed- choice option

113
Q

What is a Likert scale

A

One in which the respondent indicates their agreement
-Ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree

114
Q

What is a rating scale

A

Similar to Likert scales but instead of strongly disagree to strong agree it represents their feeling on a certain topic
e.g. tv show (very entertaining - not entertaining)

115
Q

What is a fixed choice option

A

A list of possible options that respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them

116
Q

What is the design for interviews?

A

-Interview schedule including a list of questions the interviewer intends to cover
-This should be standardised
-Notes taken during and analysed later
-Can be group or single participant
-In a quiet room away from others

117
Q

What are 5 ways to write good questions

A

Overuse of Jargon
Emotive language
leading questions
Double- barrelled questions
double negatives

118
Q

What is correlation?

A

The association between two co variables, plotted on a scattergram

119
Q

What are the 3 types of correlation

A

Positive
Negative
No correlation

120
Q

What is a positive correlation

A

As one co variable increases so does the other one

121
Q

What is a negative correlation

A

As one co variable increases the other decreases

122
Q

What is No correlation

A

No relationship between co variables

123
Q

What is the difference between correlations and experiments

A

E - manipulation of independent variable effects the dependant variable

C - There is no manipulation of one variable and therefore cause and effect cant be established

124
Q

What are 2 brief strengths of correlations

A

Secondary data can be used which means they are less time consuming

Used as a starting point for researchers to asses the relationship of two variables before a study

125
Q

What are 2 brief limitations of correlations

A

Cannot demonstrate cause and effect, only tells us how variables are related not why

May be misinterpreted - just because two things have a relationship doesn’t mean one variable was the cause of it

126
Q

What is Qualitative data and quantitative data

A

Quantitative - Data that is expressed in words (although can be converted to quantitative

Qualitative - Data that can be counted, expressed numerically

127
Q

What is one strength and one limitation of Qualitative data

A

S - Provides rich detail that is useful for more insightful data

L - Conclusions cannot be summarised statistically so is usually left to the researchers own interpreters which can be bias

128
Q

What is one strength and one limitation of Quantitative data

A

S - Easy to analyse and compare

L- less detailed and narrower in meaning

129
Q

What is Primary data

A

Information gathered first hand by the researcher for the purpose of the investigation

130
Q

What is Secondary data

A

Data obtained by someone other than the researcher conducting the research
-before the researcher conducts their research

131
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of primary data

A

S - Researcher can ensure its authentic and have more control

L - Time consuming to conduct an experiment

132
Q

Give on strength and one limitation of secondary data

A

S - its cost effective and requires minimal effort

L - Cant ensure the data obtained is reliable

133
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency

A

Mean
Mode
Median

134
Q

What are the 2 measures of dispersion

A

Range
Standard deviation

135
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of Mean

A

S - includes all of the scores in the data in the calculation making it more representative of the data as a whole

L - The mean is distorted by extreme values

136
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of Median

A

S - Unlike mean, extreme scores don’t affect it

L - Important higher and lower values are ignored

137
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of Mode

A

S - useful for data measuring most frequent accuring

L - Not representative of the whole data set

138
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of Range

A

S - its easy to calculate

L - only takes into account the most extreme values so is unrepresentative of whole data

139
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

A single value that tells us how far scores deviate from the mean
-The larger the deviation the greater the spread within a set of data

In terms of experiment;
Large deviation = Suggests not all participants were affected by the IV in the same way because the data is widely spread

Low deviation means the opposite (tightly clustered data = affected in a similar way)

140
Q

Give one strength and one limitation of Standard deviation

A

S - a much more precise measure of dispersion than the range as it includes all data

L - Like the mean, it can be distorted by one extreme value

141
Q

What are the 3 main types of graph used to show quantitative data

A

Scattergrams
Bar chart
Histogram

142
Q

What is a bar chart?

A

A graph in which the frequency of each condition is represented by the height of the bars

143
Q

What is a histogram?

A

a graph where the area (not just height) represents frequency
-The x axis must start at a true zero

144
Q

What is a scattergram

A

represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co variables ( x and y axis represents each one)

145
Q

What are the 2 types of distributions

A

Normal distribution
Skewed distribution ( positive and negative skew)

146
Q

What is normal distribution?

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped curve. the median mean and mode are located at the highest peak

If you measure certain variables such as the height of people in a school, the frequency of these measurements should form a bell shaped curve, Most people sitting in the middle and very few at the extreme ends

147
Q

What are skewed distributions?

A

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where data clusters to one end

Some data from measurements may produce measurements that skew to one side

148
Q

What is a positive skew

A

A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the right side .

149
Q

What is a negative skew

A

A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the left

150
Q

What is peer review?

A

The assessment of scientific work by a small group others in the same field
-They are unknown to the researcher
-Ensure any research intended for publication is of high quality

151
Q

What are the 3 aims of peer review

A
  1. Allocate research funding (peer evaluation takes place to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research subject)
  2. To validate the quality and relevance of research (all elements are assessed e.g. hypothesis and conclusions)
  3. Suggest amendments or improvements
152
Q

What are 2 limitations of peer review

A

Anonymity - If anonymity is not maintained experts with a conflict of interest might not approve research to further their own reputation or career.

Established scientists are the ones who peer review, findings that chime with current “status quo” within scientific fields

153
Q

In what two ways has psychological research implicated the economy

A
  1. Attachment research into the role of the father
  2. The development of treatments for mental disorders
154
Q

In what way has attachment research into the role of the father implicated the economy

A

-Has shown both parents are equally capable of providing emotional support needed for development
-This may promote flexible working arrangements within the family
-Means more couples share childcare responsibility
-They are able to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

155
Q

In what way has the development of treatments for mental disorders implicated the economy

A

-A third of all work absences are caused by mental disorders
-Psychological research into causes and treatments has played a role in supporting the workforce

156
Q

How do you convert a percentage to a decimal?

A

Remove the % sign and move the decimal point 2 places to the left
e.g.
37% = 37.0 = 0.37

Psychology Paper 2 (4 decks)

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