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Psychology Paper 2 > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

Primary internal communication system based on electrical and chemical signals

-helps all the parts of the body to communicate with each other
- send and receive messages to the environment

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2
Q

What are all the parts of the nervous system?

A

Split into two parts:

  1. Central NS
  2. Peripheral NS = Somatic NS
    Autonomic NS
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3
Q

What is the role of the Central nervous system?

A

Made up of the brain and spinal cord and is the origin of all complex decisions:

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4
Q

What is the role of the Peripheral nervous system?

A

Transmits messages via neurons to and from the central nervous system
-divided into the somatic and autonomic NS

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5
Q

What is the role of the somatic nervous system?

A

Governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
(part of the Peripheral NS)

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6
Q

What is the role of the Autonomic nervous system?

A

Governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, arousal, stress

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7
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

Instructs glands to release hormones into the bloodstream
-These hormones are carried to organs

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8
Q

What are the main glands in the endocrine system

A

Pituitary gland (master gland, controls the release of hormones from all the other glands in the system)

Thyroid gland (Produces hormones)

Hypothalamus ( releases hormones from the pituitary gland.)

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9
Q

What is the endocrine systems role in fight or flight

A

The endocrine system works in parallel with autonomic NS
-When a stressor is perceived the amygdala alerts the hypothalamus
-This triggers activity in the autonomic NS
-The ANS changes its normal resting state (parasympathetic state) to the aroused sympathetic state
Adrenaline = A stress hormone, is released from the adrenal medulla
-This creates the arousal needed for the fight or flight response

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10
Q

What is a neuron?

A

The basic building blocks of the nervous system
-They are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electric and chemical signals.

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11
Q

What are the 3 types of neurons

A

Sensory
Relay
Motor

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12
Q

What is the structure of a neuron (all 3 share the same basic structure)

A

The cell body = Includes a nucleus which contains genetic material of the cell

Dendrites = Carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to cell body

The axon = Carries impulses away from the cell body down the neuron
-It is covered in a fatty layer of Myelin sheath

Myelin sheath = protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of impulse

Nodes of Ranvier = if the Myelin sheath was continuous it would a reverse effect, slowing it down thus its segmented by gaps called nodes of Ranvier
-They speed up transmission forcing it to jump across the gaps of the axon

Terminal buttons = at the end of the axon that communicates with the next neuron across a gap called the synapse

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13
Q

What is the role of the cell body in the neuron

A

Includes a nucleus which contains genetic material of the cell

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14
Q

What is the role the Dendrites in the neuron

A

Carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to cell body

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15
Q

What is the role the axon in the neuron

A

Carries impulses from the cell body down the neuron
-It is covered in a fatty layer of Myelin sheath

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16
Q

What is the role of the Myelin Sheath in the neuron

A

protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of impulse

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17
Q

What is the role of the Nodes of Ranvier in the neuron

A

if the Myelin sheath was continuous it would cause a reverse effect, slowing it down thus its segmented by gaps called nodes of Ranvier
-They speed up transmission forcing it to jump across the gaps of the axon

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18
Q

What is the role of terminal buttons

A

at the end of the axon that communicates with the next neuron across a gap called the synapse

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19
Q

How many parts are in the structure of the neuron

A

The cell body
The axon
Dendrites
Myelin Sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Terminal buttons

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20
Q

Where are each of the 3 neurons located in the nervous system

A

Sensory = PNS in clusters known as ganglia

Relay = In the brain and spinal cord

Motor = In the CNS

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21
Q

What is the role of Motor neurons

A

Connect the CNS to effectors such as muscle and glands

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22
Q

What is the role Relay neurons

A

allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

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23
Q

What is the role of the Sensory neurons

A

Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS

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24
Q

What is synaptic transmission

A

Neurons communicate within groups known as neural networks
-Each neuron separated by an extremely small gap called synapse
-Signals within neurons are transmitted electrically
-Signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synapse

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25
Q

How does electrical transmission within the neuron turn into chemical transmission between neurons

A

When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (the presynaptic terminal) it triggers the release of neurotransmitter from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles

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26
Q

What is the role of the axon and the dendrites in synaptic transmission

A

The axon = Carries signals to the synapse
Dendrites = Takes signals away from the synapse

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27
Q

What is Excitation and Inhibitation regarding neurotransmitters and neurons.

A

Neurotransmitters have either or inhibitory an excitatory effect on the neighbouring neuron

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28
Q

What is Inhibition In neurotransmitters and neurons

A
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) make the post synaptic cell less likely to fire
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29
Q

What is Excitation in neurotransmitters and neurons

A

The neurotransmitter Adrenaline causes Excitation of the the postsynaptic neuron by increasing its positive charge and making it more likely to fire

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30
Q

What is Summation in synaptic transmission

A

Whether or not a postsynaptic neuron fires is decided by the process of summation
-The excitatory and Inihibition influences are summed and the effects decide if it is a negative or positive charge.

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31
Q

What is Localisation of function

A

Different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours processes or activities

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32
Q

What are the two hemispheres of the brain?

A

The main part of the brain, the Cerebrum is divided into two parts;
the left hemisphere
the right hemisphere

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33
Q

What is Lateralisation?

A

Some of our physical and psychological functions are controlled by a specific hemisphere:

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34
Q

How does the left and right hemisphere control the body?

A

-Activity on the left side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere

-Activity on the right side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere

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35
Q

What are the four lobes of the brain?

A

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe

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36
Q

How are the right and the left hemispheres split up?

A

Each hemisphere is divided Into the four lobes each

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37
Q

What is a lobe?

A

A part of an organ that is separate from the rest
-As each lobe has a particular function.

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38
Q

What is the function of the Frontal lobe?

A

the Motor area
- controls voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body.

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39
Q

What is the function of the Parietal lobe?

A

the Somatosensory area
-Where sensory information from the skin (touch, heat pressure) is represented

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40
Q

What is the function of the Occipital lobe?

A

At the back of the brain in both hemispheres is the Visual area
-Each eye sends information to
the right visual field to the left visual cortex and from the left visual field to the right visual cortex
Meaning damage to the left hemisphere can produce blindness in part of the right visual field in both eyes

41
Q

What is the function of the Temporal lobe?

A

The auditory area
-Analyses speech based information

42
Q

Describe Broca’s area in terms of localisation of function

A

Broca identified a small area in the left frontal lobe responsible for Speech production
-Damage to “Broca’s area” causes “Broca’s aphasia”
-Meaning speech is slow and difficulty with conjunctions

43
Q

Describe Wernicke’s area in terms of localisation of function

A

Wernicke identified an area in the left temporal lobe responsible for language understanding
-Damage to “Wernicke’s area” causes Wernicke’s Aphasia
-The inability to understand or produce adequate language

44
Q

Give two limitations of Localisation of function

A

biologically reductionist = try to reduce very complex human behaviours and cognitive processes to one specific brain region.

Beta bias = the differences between men and woman are ignored as that women have larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas than men

45
Q

Give 1 strength of localisation of function

A

Evidence = Damages to areas of the brain are linked to certain mental disorders such as OCD and impairment to the lateral of the frontal lobe

46
Q

Give an example of lateralisation

A

In terms of language the two main centres are only in the left hemisphere
-Broca’s area is in the left frontal lobe and Wernicke’s is in the left temporal lobe
-So we say language is lateralised

47
Q

Give an example of functions that arent lateralised

A

Visual, Motor and Somatosensory (appear in both hemispheres)

48
Q

Describe the complexity of motor areas in the hemispheres despite them not being lateralised

A

The right hemisphere controls the movement on the left side of the body
-The left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body

49
Q

Describe the complexity of Visual areas in the hemispheres despite them not being lateralised

A

Its opposite and same sided
-Each eye receives info from the Left visual field and the Right visual field
-The LVF in both eyes is connected to right hemisphere
-The RVF in both eyes is connected to the Left hemisphere

50
Q

What is a split brain research that proves hemispheric lateralisation

A

Sperry’s research - the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.

51
Q

What was Sperry’s laterization research?

A

Split brain individuals were shown a picture in their RVF, processed by their LH
and a picture in their LVF, processed by their RH
-In a normal bran information would be immediately shared between both hemispheres but in the patients, information could not be shared.

52
Q

What were the findings of Sperry’s research

A
  • when an object or picture was shown to their LVF (processed by RH) they would say nothing was there.

Findings - the left hemisphere of the brain was responsible for language understanding and articulation, while the right hemisphere could recognize it but could not articulate it.

53
Q

Give one strength of Sperry’s research

A

supports the conclusion that the left hemisphere is more responsible for verbal and analytical tasks, whereas the right hemisphere is better at spatial and musical tasks.

54
Q

Give one limitation of Sperry’s research

A

Sampling issue = was quite small (only 11 took part )
their brains may have been affected by epileptic seizures. Therefore, it is hard to generalise the findings from the studies to the general population.

55
Q

What is the RH and the LH typically referred to?

A

RH = synthesiser
LH = Analyser

56
Q

What is Brain plasticity?

A

The brain can change and adapt as a result of experience

57
Q

Who is the researcher for brain plasticity?

A

Maguire

58
Q

What is the research for brain plasticity

A

Maguire - Found that Taxi drivers had more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than a control group.
-The part of the brain associated with spatial and navigation skills

59
Q

What is functional recovery of the brain?

A

A form of neural plasticity, After an injury healthy brain areas adapt and compensate for those that are damaged

60
Q

What happens during functional brain recovery

A

new synaptic connections are formed close to the area damaged

61
Q

What is the research for functional brain recovery

A

Doidge - The process includes:
-Axonal sprouting = New nerve endings connect with undamaged ones to form new pathways

-Denervation = Axons that do a similar job compensate

62
Q

Give one strength of brain plasticity and functional recovery

A

Real world application - Understanding the processes of plasticity has contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation

-Constraint induced therapy = stroke patients repeatedly practice using the affected part of their body

63
Q

What are all the techniques for investigating the brain

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Event- related potentials
Post- mortem examinations

64
Q

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

detects changes in both blood oxygenation and flow as a result of neural activity in specific parts of the brain.

-When a brain area is active, blood flow is directed to that area

-produces images showing which parts of the brain are involved in specific mental processes

65
Q

What is one strength of functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

-Non invasive and has a high spatial resolution, giving a clear picture

66
Q

What is one limitation of functional magnetic resonance imaging?

A

Expensive compared to others
-Poor temporal resolution = May not truly represent moment-moment brain activity

67
Q

What is Electroencephalogram?

A

Measure electrical activity in the brain using electrodes fixed using a skull cap
-Shows brainwave patterns that are generated from neurons, providing an overall account of brain activity

68
Q

What is one strength of Electroencephalogram?

A

-High temporal resolution

69
Q

What is one limitation of Electroencephalogram?

A

The EEG signal is not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity

70
Q

What are Event- related potentials

A

Data from EEG’s that are isolated through statistical analysis to show the brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event.

71
Q

What is a strength of Event-related potentials

A

As they are derived from EEG data they have great temporal resolution

72
Q

What is a limitation of Event- related potentials

A

In order to get accurate results all background noise needs to be eliminated (hard to achieve)

73
Q

What are Post- mortem examinations?

A

Analysis of someone’s brain after death to determine whether behaviours during their lifetime can be linked to structural abnormalities in the brain.

74
Q

What is a strength of Post-mortem examinations

A

key in Understanding key processes in the brain, Broca and Wernicke both relied on post-mortem studies in establishing links of language and understanding processes.

75
Q

What is a limitation of Post-mortem examinations

A

Observed damage to the brain may not be linked to the structural abnormalities but other trauma or decay

76
Q

What are biological rhythms?

A

Distinct patterns in the body activity that conform to cyclical time periods
-Biological rhythms are influenced by internal body clocks (Endogenous pacemakers)
-And external changes to the environment (Exogeneous zeitgebers)

77
Q

What two things are biological rhythms influenced by

A

Endogenous pacemakers
Exogeneous zeitgebers

78
Q

What are circadian rhythms?

A

Biological rhythms subject to a 24 hour cycle such as the sleep/ wake cycle and changes in core body temp

79
Q

How does the sleep/ wake cycle work?

A

-Feeling tired when its night and alert when its day demonstrates exogenous zeitgebers
-Superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN) provides information from the eye about light (EP & EZ)
-Light can reset the SCN

80
Q

Who is the researcher for circadian rhythms

A

Siffre’s cave study

81
Q

What is the research for circadian rhythms

A

What if the SCN couldn’t tell if it was night or day?

Siffre’s cave study = Spent 6 months in a cave deprived from light and sound but with access to food and drink

-his free running biological rhythm was 25 hours and he did continue to sleep and wake on a regular schedule

82
Q

What is a strength of Circadian rhythms

A

Provides understanding of the consequences that occur when they are disrupted e.g. workers on shift work experience a period of reduced concentration around 6am
-A Circadian trough = mistakes are more likely

83
Q

What is a limitation of Circadian rhythms

A

Siffres study is hard to generalise = Sleep cycles may vary from person to person
-Siffre is a young man

84
Q

What are Infradian rhythms?

A

Those that take longer than 24 hours to complete e.g. Menstrual cycle or seasonal affective disorder

85
Q

State the steps of the menstrual cycle

A

-Monthly changes in hormone levels that regulate ovulation
-Time is from the first day of a woman’s period to the day before her next one
-Cycle takes 28 days to complete

86
Q

What is the study for menstrual cycle in infradian rhythms

A

Although its an endogenous systems study shows it can be influenced by exogenous factors;

Stern & McClintock = Studied women with irregular periods
-Samples of pheromones were gathered from some of them on a cotton pad at different stages of their cycle
-The cotton pads were put on the upper lip of all participants
-It was found that 68% of women experienced changes to their cycle

87
Q

What is seasonal affective disorder?

A

-A depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern
-Symptoms are triggered during winter where daylight hours are shorter
-Specific type of infardian rhythm (circannual)

88
Q

What is a strength of Infradian rhythms?

A

Evolutionary basis= Can be explained by natural selection, for our ancestors it may have been an advantage for females to menstruate together and be pregnant at the same time, for access to milk and improving survival

89
Q

What is one limitation of Infradian rhythms?

A

Confounding variables = There are many factors that may change may effect change in woman’s menstrual cycle e.g. stress, diet, exercise

90
Q

What are Ultradian rhythms?

A

One that takes less than less that 24 hours to complete and occurs more than once over the course of the day
e.g. stages of sleep

91
Q

What are the stages 1 & 2 of sleep

A

1 & 2 = This light sleep where a person may be easily woken
1 - Alpha waves = Brain waves are high frequency and have short amplitude
2 - Alpha waves continue but there are occasional changes in pattern called sleep spindles

92
Q

What are stages 3 & 4 of sleep

A

3 & 4 = Delta waves - known as deep sleep (Slow Wave Sleep)
low frequency high amplitude

93
Q

What are stages 5 of sleep

A

5 = Body is paralysed yet brain is seemingly awake
Theta waves - eyes occasionally move around

94
Q

What is one strength of Ultradian rhythms

A

Improved understanding of age related changes in sleep
-Scientists have shown that slow wave sleep reduces with age as the growth hormone is mostly produced during SWS

95
Q

What is one limitation of Ultradian Rhythms

A

Individual differences - Tucker et al found differences in terms of duration of each sleep stage, especially stages 3 & 4

96
Q

What is the primary endogenous pacemaker?

A

The superchiasmatic nucleus - located in the hypothalamus
-Lies just above the optic chiasm and receives information about light even when eyes are closed

97
Q

What is the animal study for the Superchiasmatic nucleus

A

Ralph et al = Bred mutant hamsters with a 20 hour sleep/wake cycle
-When SCN cells of the mutant cells were transplanted into the brains of normal hamsters , their cycles defaulted to 20 hours

98
Q

What is the pineal glands involvement in the endogenous pacemaker

A

During the night the pineal gland produces melatonin - a chemical that induces sleep

Psychology Paper 2 (4 decks)

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