Research Methods Flashcards
What is the definition of content analysis?
A technique for systematically analysing various kinds of qualitative data (e.g. texts, films, emails, other media) The data can then be placed into categories and counted (quantitative) or analysed in themes (qualitative - known separately as thematic analysis)
What is time sampling?
Time sampling is a method of sampling behaviour in an observation study and is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals. For example, every 10 seconds.
What is event sampling?
Event sampling is used to sample behaviour in observational research. It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs.
What is coding in content analysis?
- Watch the material and establish potential categories (if there are two psychologists they should do this separately)
- compare categories and agree on set ones.
-Carry out the content analysis separately and count the number of examples that fit into each category to produce quantitative data.
-The psychologists should then compare their answers to look for agreement and use an appropriate statistical test to analyse the reliability of their results.
What is Thematic analysis?
- researchers initially use coding to analyse the data, comparing the categories they find.
- they then find examples of emergent themes.
-Look back at sample and collect new set of data, then represent it appropriately and write it up in a report.
What is Inter-rater reliability ?
psychologists carry out content analysis separately, create categories and then compare their answers. Correlation of +0.8 is reliable.
What is Test-retest reliability?
The psychologist could conduct the content analysis (creating categories, and then recode them (create the categories again) at a later date and compare the two. Correlation of +0.8 is reliable.
What is Internal validity?
Whether the effects observed in a study are due to manipulation of the independent variable and not any other factor.
What is External validity?
Refers to how well you can generalise the results from research participants (apply the findings of a study) to people, places and times outside of the study.
What was Milgram’s 1963 experiment?
Aim: To see how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person.
Procedure: Two roles of either learner or teacher. Teacher is the participant and has to ask the ‘learner’ a series of questions. The teacher had to give an electric shock at each wrong answer, starting at 15V and ending at 450V (lethal)
Results: Two thirds of participants continued to the lethal voltage, and everyone continued to 300V.
What is the evaluation of Milgram’s study?
-Research tends to confirm Milgram’s original findings.
-High cultural validity when done around the world, except with women on women in Australia, which only had 16% obedience.
What is the My Lai study?
The My Lai massacre was where more than 500 Vietnamese citizens were killed in cold blood at the hands of US troops. People were tortured and raped, and it began with the command of Officer Calley. Calley was later the only one arrested for this atrocity.
What is triangulation?
The use of a number of different sources or evidence, e.g. data compiled from interviews with friends and family, personal diaries, observations etc.
Why do observations have a high ecological validity?
Because they use covert observations so there is minimal intervention from the researcher, as they cannot influence the participants behaviour.
What level of measurement is used for nominal data?
Mode
What level of measurement is used for ordinal data?
-Median
-Range
What level of measurement is used for Interval data?
-Mean
-Standard deviation
What is ordinal data?
Data on a numerical scale but without precise spacing e.g. scale of 1-10.
What is interval data?
Data based on a standardised scale with precise intervals e.g. numbers.
What is nominal data?
data that is in categories e.g. dogs, cats, rats.
What is the aim of statistical testing?
To determine the likelihood that the relationship found in the study is significant or due to chance.
What do we mean by ‘probability’
A numerical measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur ranging from 0 to 1 where 0 indicated statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty.
What is a significance level?
The point at which the researcher can claim to have discovered a significant difference or correlation within the data.
What does P<0.05 mean?
The probability that the observed effect (the result) occurred by chance (i.e. would have occurred if there was no difference or association in the data) is less than 5%.
Why can psychologists never be 100% about a certain result?
Psychologists can never be 100% certain about a particular result because they have not studied all members of the population under all possible circumstances.
- What values do psychologists compare in statistical tests?
In any statistical test that psychologists use, they compare the result of their test (the calculated value) to a critical value for the significance level that the psychologist has chosen.
What are the two types of hypothesis?
- null hypothesis (nothing will happen)
- alternative hypothesis (something will happen)
What are the two types of alternative hypothesis?
- directional hypothesis (predicting which way research will go)
- non-directional hypothesis (predicting there will be a difference, but not what it is.)
Why would you give a non-directional hypothesis?
if there is no previous research on the subject, or previous research is contradicting.
What is an extraneous variable?
does not vary systematically with the independent variable - any independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if not controlled.
What is a confounding variable?
A form of extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent variable (big problem!!)
What are participant variables?
The differing individual characteristics of participants in an experiment e.g. age, mood
What are situational variables?
factors in the environment which could unintentionally influence the results of the study e.g. noise, light.
What is randomisation?
leaving variables such as the allocation of participants to tasks, sample selection etc. to chance in order to reduce investigator influence on the study.
What is standardisation?
All elements of procedure are kept identical in all conditions of the study.
What is single-blind design and what does it control for?
Participants don’t know what group they are in - controls for demand characteristics.
What is double-blind design and what does it control for?
neither investigator or participants know the aim of the study - controls for demand characteristics and investigator effects.
What are demand charactertistics?
Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted to reveal the purpose of an investigation.
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome. This could be design of the study or interaction with participants.
What is the experimental method?
The manipulation of an IV to measure the effect on the DV. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
What is a laboratory experiment?
occurs in a controlled environment with extraneous variables strictly controlled, measuring the effect of the IV (manipulated by researcher) on the DV.
What is a field experiment?
Occurs in a natural setting with researcher manipulating IV and measuring effects on DV.
What is a natural experiment?
Researcher records effects of change brought about by an IV that would have occurred anyway (e.g. earthquake) on a DV.
What is a quasi-experiment?
Almost an experiment, however the IV is naturally occurring between participants e.g. age
What are the strengths of a lab experiment?
- High control over confounding and extraneous variables (high internal validity).
- High levels of control makes results more replicable.
What are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?
- artificial environment so lacks generalisability.
- demand characteristics.
- low mundane realism.
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- high mundane realism
- participants unaware they’re being studied so high external validity.
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
- Lacking control of extraneous and confounding variables, makes it hard to see cause and effect.
- Less replicable.
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- opportunity for research which otherwise couldn’t take place due to ethical issues.
- high external validity.
What is the BPS code of ethics?
A quasi-legal document produced by BPS instructing UK psychologists what behaviours is acceptable concerning participants. Built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility, integrity.
What are the strengths of a quasi-experiment?
- easier to replicate as done in a lab condition.
What is temporal validity?
Whether the results of the research would still apply at a different point in time.
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
- participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions, making cause and effect hard to see.
- lack of opportunity for them to occur, also makes results hard to generalise.
What are the weaknesses of a quasi-experiment?
- cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions, so could be confounding variables.
- IV has not been manipulated so we cannot claim any observed change.
What is ecological validity?
How well you can generalise the results of the study to different settings or situations - whether the research tells us what we want to know about.
What is face validity?
Whether a test appears to be effective in terms of its stated aims.
What is a volunteer sample? What is a strength and weakness?
Volunteers who respond via advertising.
+ A variety of variable e.g. age intelligence etc.
- people who volunteer are a certain type e.g. confident extroverted.
What is an opportunity sample? What is a strength and weakness?
Whoever is willing and most readily available.
+ The easiest way of getting a sample.
- may be biased
What is concurrent validity?
Whether the results of the study are in line with well-established measure looking into the same phenomena.
What is stratified sampling?
Composition of sample reflects the proportions of people in subgroups (strata) within the chosen population.
What is random sampling? What is a strength and weakness?
Random selection from target population e.g. drawing names from a hat.
+ Very little bias
- Time consuming
What is systematic sampling? What is a strength and a weakness?
Using an objective system to select participants e.g. every fifth house on a street.
+ Not biased
- Could fall onto an existing pattern e.g. every fifth house is a flat.
What is the strength and weakness of stratified sampling?
+ Most likely to be a representative unbiased sample.
- Time consuming and costly.
What is generalisation?
The extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the general population.
What is the difference between a population and a sample?
population - the group which whom the researcher is interested, from which the sample group is drawn, which is the group who actually participate in the experiment.
What is an experimental design?
How participants are allocated to the different conditions of the experiment.
What are the three different experimental designs? (+ brief description)
- Matched pairs (put in pairs based on potential extraneous variable.)
- independent groups (participants take part in one condition)
- repeated measures (participants take part in both conditions)
How do matched pairs work?
Participants put into pairs based on potential extraneous variable e.g. IQ based on pre-test result. Top two are paired and so on, then each are randomly allocated to either A or B.
Strengths and weaknesses of independent groups?
+ Participants less likely to produce demand characteristics.
+ No order effects
- less economical
- different participant variables in each group.
Strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs?
+ less order effects or demand characteristics.
- participants can never be matched exactly.
- less economical.
strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures?
+ participant variables controlled.
- confounding variable of order effects (could get tired)
- participants could work out aim, leading to demand characteristics.
How can repeated measures weaknesses be overcome?
- counterbalancing (half A->B, half B->A)
- time gap between conditions.
How can independent groups weaknesses be overcome?
- randomly allocate participants to conditions.
How can matched pairs weaknesses be overcome?
- Conduct pilot study to decide key variables for matching.
- restrict number of variables to match on.
What is interval data?
Based on standardised numerical scale with precisely defined units e.g. weight.
What is ordinal data?
Data on a numerical scale but where units are not precisely defined e.g. questionnaire results.
What is nominal data?
data in categories e.g. colours.
What are descriptive stats?
way of using numbers to describe the data you have.
What are the types of descriptive stats?
- measures of central tendency
- measures of dispersion
- graphs
What are the three measures of central tendency and what data are they used for?
Mean - interval data
Median - interval and ordinal data
Mode - interval, ordinal, nominal.
What are the two measures of dispersion?
Range - arithmetic value between top and bottom figure in a data set.
Standard deviation - average distance between each data item above and below the mean. You want this to be small, with figures grouped around the mean.
What is a strength and weakness of mean?
+ most sensitive measure
- easily distorted by anomalies.
What is a strength and weakness of median?
+ not effected by extreme scores.
- less sensitive
What is a strength and weakness of mode?
+ easy to calculate, only possibility for nominal data.
- crude measure
What is a strength and weakness of standard deviation?
+ much more precise than range as it considers all values.
- can be distorted by anomalies.
What is a strength and weakness of range?
+ easily calculated
- does not indicate where numbers may be grouped, so may be unrepresentative
What to remember when creating a table?
- Must have a title
- sets out raw data
What to remember when creating a bar chart?
- Mainly for nominal data
- gaps between bars for lack of continuity
- if three variables: frequency along Y-axis, other two along X, with small gap between two bars of same category and big gap between categories.
What to remember when creating a scattergram?
- for correlations (relationships)
- do not join up dots!
- no dependent or independent, either can go on either axis.
What to remember when creating a histogram?
- bars touch for continuity
- Y axis is frequency
What to type of data is a line graph for?
- used when data is continuous
What is a distribution normal?
- bell shaped curve
- mean, median and mode all exact midpoint.
- consistent dispersion either side of midpoint.
When is a distribution positively skewed?
- bunched to the left
- from peak downwards: mean -> median -> mode.
- most have not, but a few skew the results e.g. winning the Olympics.
When is a distribution negatively skewed?
- scores bunch to right
- from peak downwards: mode -> median -> mean
- most have, but a few who haven’t skew result e.g. having a ring finger.
What is inferential stats testing?
Allows researches to determine whether they have found a significant result in order to know which hypothesis to accept.
What does a significance level of p<0.05 mean?
That the probability that the results occurred by chance are less than 5%. This is the standard significance level in psychology.
What is the significance level?
The point at which a researcher can claim to have found a significant difference or correlation within the research.
What happens with the results of all stats tests?
the calculated value (results of the test) is compared to the critical value for the chosen significance level.
When might lower levels of significance be used?
In studies where there may be a human cost e.g. drug trials.
What are the two types of hypothesis called in stats testing?
- One-tailed (directional)
- Two-tailed (non-directional)
When does the sign test need to be used?
- When the researchers are looking for a difference.
- ## A related design (matched pairs or repeated measures) has been used.
What are the steps of the sign test?
- identify the three categories
- calculate the number of participants in each
- Assign category with no difference a 0 sign
- Assign the other two either + or -
- Identify the category with a smaller number. This number is S.
What is the model sign test conclusion?
The calculated value of – is greater than/smaller than/equal to the critical value of – (p≤ –, – - tailed test, N = –). This means that the result is/is not significant. This means that we can accept/reject the null hypothesis that – . [result is significant, then add] This means that we can accept the alternative hypothesis that – . However, because the significance level was – , there is still a – probability that the results would have occurred even if –.
What do you need to consider when determining stats test?
- level of measurement?
- difference, correlation or association?
- experimental design?
What is phrase for remembering decision table?
Can Simon Cowell Make Winners Sing Under Real Pressure
When can a parametric test be used?
- interval data
- participants drawn from normally distributed sample.
- homogeneity of variance, meaning the standard deviations of the conditions must be similar.
What is a type one error?
‘optimists error’, rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually correct. Occurs when significance level is too lenient.
What is a type two error?
‘pessimists error’ accepting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis should have been accepted. Often occurs when significance level is too stringent.
How do you check for a type one error?
- Keep the tailed test and N/df the same
- Change the significance level to the smallest possible option on the appropriate row
- Check if the calculated value is still significant or not
- If it is, you are unlikely to have made a type 1 error. If it’s not significant anymore, then you are likely to have made a type 1 error.
How to write a type one error conclusion?
- Tell them how confident you are in your original conclusion using the significance level.
- Tell them the probability that a type 1 error might have occurred.
- What are you changing the significance level to in order to check for a type 1 error?
- What would the probability of the making the error then be?
- Is the calculated significant using the new significance level?
There has a type 1 error been made or not and which hypothesis should be accepted
What are the different types of random sampling technique?
- The lottery method
- random number table
- random number generators
How does the lottery method work?
- Obtain list of names of all population.
- put all names in a hat
- select the number of names required.
How does a random number table work?
- have a printed table of random numbers.
1. give every population member a number.
2. blindly place finger anywhere to determine starting position.
3.
How does a random number generator work?
- number every member of the population
- Use a random number generator app to select members.
What are the five ethical issues?
- informed consent
- deception
- right to withdraw
- protection from harm
- confidentiality/privacy
What is informed consent? How do you overcome lack of informed consent?
- Making participant aware of the aims, their rights, the procedure and what the data will be used for.
- Issue a consent form detailing all info relevant to their participation, and if under 16 get parents to sign it. Debrief at the end/
What is deception? How do you overcome deception?
- Deliberately misleading or withholding info at any stage.
- Gain retrospective consent after a full debrief. Give right to withdraw data.
What is right to withdraw? How do you overcome lack of?
- Participants have the right to withdraw if uncomfortable with the study.
- Researchers must inform participants that they can withdraw whenever they want, and it should be made an easy process. If pressurised not to withdraw, give full debrief.
What is protection from harm? How do you protect?
- participants should not be placed in more danger than they are in their regular lives as a result of the experiment. Protection should be from physical and psychological harm.
- provide counselling in extreme cases, and reassure that behaviour was normal
What is confidentiality/privacy? How do you protect from lack of?
- our right, enshrined in law, to have any personal data protected.
- participants should be informed of what data will be used for, given right to withdraw and right to withhold data. pseudonyms can be used.
What is the definition of a pilot study?
A small-scale version of the investigation which takes place prior.
What should a consent form contain?
-> should be appropriate to the participants.
1. The title of the study.
2. intro to purpose of study with brief background details.
3. Answers to FAQs.
4. The name and contact details of the researcher.
5. Thank the participant for taking part.
Ending statements: participants need to confirm that they have read and understood, had the chance to ask Qs, understand its voluntary and they can withdraw, consent to specific aspects of the study, and give their signature and date.
What should a debrief sheet include?
- Should be written so it can be read out.
1. true aim of the study
2. outline both conditions of the study.
3. ask participants if they have any Qs
4. relevant ethical issues
5. offer someone to talk to if distressed.
6. thanks for taking part.
What is the aim of a pilot study?
Aims to check that procedures, materials (e.g. measuring scales) etc. work. Allows researchers to modify where necessary, saving money and time in the future.
What is a case study?
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event.
What research methods in a case study gather Quantitative data? Qualitative?
Quantitative: experimental or psychological testing.
Qualitative: Interviews, observations, questionnaires.
What are two strengths and weaknesses of case studies?
+ Offers rich and detailed insights
+ High mundane realism and ecological validity as in a natural environment.
- susceptible to investigator effects as final report is due to their subjective selection.
- small sample, so hard to generalise.
What is a naturalistic observation? Evaluate?
Watching behaviour is the environment it would normally occur.
+ high external validity
- hard to replicate
What is a controlled observation? Evaluate?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. where variables are controlled.
+ higher control over extraneous and confounding variables.
- harder to apply to everyday life less mundane realism
What is a covert observation? Evaluate?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent.
+ removes problem of demand characteristics so higher internal validity
- ethical issues (right to privacy, informed consent)
What is an overt observation? Evaluate?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
+ more ethically acceptable than covert
- may produce demand characteristics
What is a participant observation? Evaluate?
Researcher becomes a member of the group who they are observing.
+ increased insight means increased external validity
- researcher may lose objectivity if they begin to identify with the group.
What is a non-participant observation? Evaluate?
The researcher remains outside of the group they are watching
+ Allows the researcher to remain objective
- may not provide full insight into lives of population
What are behavioural categories?
When a target behaviour is broken down into components that are observable and measurable.
What is event sampling?
Establish target then record event every time it occurs.
What is a structured observation?
The researcher simplifies the target by using behavioural categories
What is an unstructured observation?
The researcher writes down everything they see
What is reliability?
A measure of consistency referring to how consistent findings are being. Something is reliable if it produces consistent findings every time.
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires?
Items can be deselected e.g. an ambiguous open question can be replaced with a closed less ambiguous question.
How can reliability be improved in interviews?
Use the same interviewer each time, or make sure they are all properly trained.
How can reliability be improved in experiments?
Researcher controls all aspects of procedure possible.
How can reliability be improved in observations?
make sure behavioural categories are operationalised, are not ambiguous and don’t overlap.
What is the cost-benefit approach with ethics?
used by ethics committees to determine if research proposals are acceptable.
What is presumptive consent?
Asking a group similar to your participants if they would consent and if yes then consent is given.
What is primary data?
Info obtained first hand by the researcher.
What is secondary data?
Info already collected by another, pre-dating the research e.g. government statistics.
What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?
An aim identifies the purpose of an investigation, a hypothesis is proposed explanation of something that has to be verified and tested before it can be widely accepted as fact.
What is a positive correlation?
as one co-variable increases so does the other.
What is a negative correlation?
As one co-variable increases the other decreases.
What is a curvilinear relationship?
Where as one co-variable increases so does the other, up to a point after which one continues to increase and the other decreases.
What is a correlation co-efficient?
A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of the co-variables.
What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?
In a correlation there is no manipulation of a variable and cause and effect cannot be established.
What is the evaluation for correlational analysis?
+ quick and economical to carry out
+ can suggest ideas for future research
- people can misunderstand and assume cause and effect
- Cannot tell us what the cause and effect is
What are the strengths and weaknesses of content analysis?
+ flexible, as able to produce quantitative and qualitative data.
- high researcher bias, as they may have preconceived ideas of what results should be.
- time consuming and costly.
How do you write a good hypothesis?
1) IV and DV are clear and measurable.
2) relationship between IV and DV stated (not aim!)
3) directional vs non-directional appropriately chosen.
(operationalise all!)
What is standardisation?
Where procedures used in research are kept the same - keep all elements of a procedure identical.
What is randomisation?
Allocating participants to tasks, selecting samples of participants etc. are left to chance as far as possible, reducing the investigators influence on a study.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of primary data?
+ can target the precise info researcher needs.
- Time consuming and expensive
What are the strengths and weaknesses of secondary data?
+ easy to access and fast
- no control over how experiment was conducted e.g. control over extraneous variables.
What is a questionnaire?
written questions used to assess a persons thoughts/experiences
What is an interview?
A ‘live’ encounter where the interviewer asks a set of Qs to assess thoughts/experiences. Qs may be pre-set or develop as the interview goes along.
What are open Qs? Evaluate?
Answers with no fixed response.
+ wide range of detailed responses.
- difficult to analyse.
- time consuming.
What are closed Qs? Evaluate?
Qs with fixed response, e.g. yes/no.
+ easy to analyse.
+ objective answers less likely to be biased.
- lacks depth and detail.
- large amount of responses needed for reliable analysis.
What is a structured interview? Evaluate?
predetermined Qs in a fixed order.
+ straightforward to replicate.
+ reduces differences between interviewers.
- limits richness of data received.
What is an unstructured interview? Evaluate?
no set Qs, free flowing discussion, interviewee encouraged to expand on answers.
+ gains more insight and can receive unexpected info.
- difficult to analyse data
- interviewer bias
What is a semi-structured interview?
list of Qs worked out in advance but follow up Qs used based on answers.
What is the ABC of writing good questionnaires?
Analysis - Answers should be easy to analyse.
Bias - avoid leading Qs or emotive language.
Clarity - Qs should be clear e.g. avoid use of jargon.
What are five ways to write a good questionnaire?
- use good Qs.
- filler Qs to distract from aim, reducing DC.
- sequencing: start with easy Qs then progress.
- sampling: questionnaires often use stratified.
- use pilot before main study.
(should be objective and systematic!)
How would you record an interview?
notes could be taken (but could lead to SDB/DC) so audio or video recording can be used instead.
How can interviewers display their interest in order to gather more info?
- Non-verbal communication: head nodding/leading forward, no arm crossing/frowning.
- Listening skills: do not interrupt and make encouraging comments.
What questioning skills are needed in an interview?
Avoid repeating Qs or probing too much, asking ‘why’ a lot. Try and maintain focus.
What is meta-analysis? Evaluate?
Pooling together studies investigating the same aim/hypothesis and concluding based on all their findings.
+ larger more varied sample, more generalisable and higher validity.
- publication bias (ignoring studies with undesirable results).
What is a peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by other specialists, to ensure it is high-quality before publishing.
How does the peer review process work?
All aspects of a written investigation should be scrutinised by a group of two or three experts (‘peers’) in the field. They should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the author.
Why is peer reviewing an important part of the scientific process?
- ensures published work can be taken by researchers and the public.
- allows the validity and credibility of the research to be checked.
- peers can recommend whether to publish or improve.
What are the three main criticisms of peer reviewing?
Anonymity: some may use their anonymity to unfairly criticise rival researchers, especially as fundings is scarce.
Publication bias: ‘headline grabbers’ and positive research may be chosen by journals, creating a false image of psychology.
Burying research: may slow down rate of change as contradictory ideas from non-established scientists might be dismissed.
What are the three main purposes of peer review?
- to allocate funding.
- so publication of research in journals/books is valid.
- assessing the research ratings of university departments .
What are the features of science?
- Objectivity
- empirical method
- replicability
- falsifiability
- Theory construction
- Paradigm shift
- Hypothesis testing
What is objectivity?
When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort results.
What is the empirical method?
gathering evidence through direct observation and experience.
What is replicability?
The extent to which scientific procedures and results can be replicated by other researchers.
What is falsifiability?
the principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.
What is a theory/ theory construction?
(the creation of) an explanation for describing a phenomenon. Based on observations of empirical data.
What is a paradigm/paradigm shift?
(The result of a scientific revolution which causes a shift in) a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
What is hypothesis testing?
when it is possible to make clear, precise and testable predictions on the basis of a theory.
How can psychology help with work absence?
Costs the economy an estimated 15 billion annually, and a gov. report shows that a third are caused by mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress, so psychology could help support a healthy workforce through treatments such as antipsychotics and antianxiety drugs.
How can attachment research benefit the economy?
Further research into the parental contributions of the father since Bowlby has shown that both parents can provide care for their child. This has meant that couples can have more flexible work patterns with mothers working more, contributing to the economy.
What are the sections of a psychological report?
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Method
- Results
- Discussion
- References (details of all material used)
- Appendices (material and raw data presented)
What should be included in an abstract of a report?
Study summary including aims, hypothesis, methods, results, conclusions and implications. Lets reader determine if it is worth reading.
What should be included in an introduction of a report?
- review of relevant previous research.
- ends with stating aim and hypothesis.
- funnels logically towards your research.
What should be included in the method paragraph of a report?
- procedure
- design
- apparatus
- ethics
What should be included in the results section of a report?
- descriptive statistics
- Inferential statistics
- categories and themes for qualitative research
What should be included in the discussion section of a report?
- Summary of results
- Relationship to previous research
- Strengths and weaknesses of methodology
- Implications for theories
- The contribution the research has made to the field
- suggestions for future research
What are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling?
+ simplifies data collection, reduces number of observations that have to be made.
- may miss out on important information, unrepresentative of data as a whole.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling?
+ captures event however infrequent.
- If event is too complex, important details could be overlooked.
