1
Q
What is the definition of aggression?
A
An act carried out with the intention to harm another person
2
Q
What is the definition of proactive aggression?
A
A planned method - less emotional e.g teasing
3
Q
What is the definition of reactive aggression?
A
Angry and impulsive aggression, accompanied by physiological arousal e.g. temper tantrum
4
Q
What is the definition of neural mechanisms?
A
Areas of the brain and their communication, and how they may be responsible for aggression
5
Q
What is the definition of hormonal mechanisms?
A
Chemical substances circulating in the bloodstream - responsibility for aggression?
6
Q
What is the limbic system explanation for how aggression is caused?
A
Amygdala: evaluates emotional importance of sensory info -> assesses and responds to environmental threats -> (hippocampus: involved in the formation of LTM -> compared current threat to past experiences -> if impaired, sensory info cannot be put into context) -> more likely to interpret sensory information as a threat -> reactivity increases accordingly -> greater reactivity = greater aggression.
7
Q
What is the serotonin explanation for aggression?
A
- Serotonin = inhibitory transmitter -> normal levels means reduced neuron firing, inhibiting response to emotional stimuli, so associated with self control.
- Normal serotonin levels will therefore inhibit the firing of the amygdala.
- Low serotonin levels remove inhibitory effects, making people less able to control aggressive behaviour, making aggression more likely.
8
Q
What case study is supporting evidence for the limbic system (CW)? What is the counterargument?
A
Support:
- Charles Whitman shot 13 people at Texas College after killing his wife and mother.
- Left a note asking doctors to examine his brain because he thought something was making him aggressive.
- Doctors found a tumour pressing against his amygdala, supporting its role in aggression.
Counterargument:
- Charles Whitman was raised in a home with guns (could have learnt aggressive behaviour) and was going through stress (breakdown of marriage + failing uni) and was suffering childhood trauma (abuse from father) so cause and effect cannot be established here.
9
Q
What is a weakness of both the limbic system and serotonin? What is the counterargument for this?
A
- Neural explanations are overly determinist as they suggest our behaviour is caused by internal biological processes which we have no control over - implications for principle of legal system.
- Could lead to need to screen people and discriminate based on their results.
- Makes it harder for the victims as the offender cannot take responsibility, may invade their privacy, big ethical issues!
- Does not make the theory less valid, only less palatable.
Counterargument: If people could be screened and therefore know they are vulnerable, they could avoid environmental stimulus or develop coping mechanisms.
10
Q
What is supporting evidence for the serotonin explanation? What is a weakness of this study?
A
- Raleigh et al.
- Studied importance of serotonin on aggressive behaviour in monkeys.
- Found that monkeys who had diets which increased serotonin production had decreased aggression, and vice versa.
- This supports a causal link, supporting the study’s internal validity.
Counterargument: - Issues with generalising from animal studies to humans - aggression may be different as animals cannot consider consequences.
11
Q
What is the testosterone hormonal explanation for aggression?
A
- male sex hormone testosterone is responsible for development of masculine features and regulating social behaviour (with its influence on certain areas of the brain associated with aggression)
- It is thought higher testosterone levels are linked with aggressive behaviour.
- E.g. Dolan et al. Found that there was a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours in male offenders.
12
Q
What is the progesterone hormonal explanation for aggression?
A
- female ovarian hormone thought to impact female aggression.
- levels vary with the menstrual cycle, highest during and after period.
- low levels linked to increased aggression in women.
13
Q
What is the supporting evidence for the progesterone explanation of aggression? What is the counterargument?
A
Ziomkiewica et al. Found a negative correlation between progesterone and self-reported aggression, supports link.
Counterargument: cannot determine cause and effect.
14
Q
What supporting evidence for the testosterone explanation (hormonal) of aggression? ( Dabs et al.)
A
- Dabs et al. Measured salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals.
- Found that those with high testosterone levels had a history of primarily violent crimes, supporting the link between testosterone and aggression.
15
Q
What is supporting evidence for testosterone? (Giammanco et al. Animals)
A
- Giammanco et al. Found that increasing the testosterone levels in animals caused increased aggression levels and vice versa.
- supports internal validity, establishes cause and effect.
16
Q
How can the MAOA gene cause aggression (genetic explanation)?
A
- MAOA is an enzyme which regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain.
- The gene responsible for producing this enzyme has been associated with aggressive behaviour.
- A low activity variant (allele) of this gene leads to low activity of MAOA in certain areas of the brain, and has been linked to aggression.
17
Q
What is the supporting study for the MAOA gene as a genetic explanation of aggression?
A
- Brunner et al.
- Studied a large Dutch family involved in aggressive criminal behaviours such as rape.
- Found that they all had abnormally low levels of MAOA in their brains, and the low-activity MOAO gene.
18
Q
How do twin studies work for studying aggression?
A
- Study pair of twins (MZ or DZ) where one has been found to be aggressive.
- Measure the concordance percentage.
- If aggression is fully genetic, the concordance will be 100%. If it is partly genetic, the concordance rate for MZ twins will be higher than DZ twins.
19
Q
How do adoption studies work for studying aggression?
A
- Study people who are aggressive who were adopted as children.
- Study biological + adoptive parents to see if either are aggressive.
- If aggressive is genetic, at least one biological parent should be aggressive.
20
Q
What supporting evidence is there for MAOA as the cause of aggression? (Money game)
A
- Mertins et al.
- Study of participants with high and low variants of the MAOA gene in a money-distributing game.
- Participants could choose whether or not to contribute money for the good of the group.
- Males with the higher activity gene were more cooperative and made less aggressive moves than those with the low-activity gene.
21
Q
What is a weakness of twin and adoption studies as supporting evidence for the genetic explanation?
A
- Many are focusing on studying those convicted of violent crime is problematic
- many who commit violence are never convicted for it.
- those convicted of a violent crime may have never done one before, explaining why a link may not be found in these studies.
- studies are not externally valid and may underestimate the link between genes and aggression
22
Q
What is a strength of the genetic explanation? (Gender differences)
A
- The MAOA gene theory can explain gender differences for aggressive behaviour, as the gene may be linked to the X chromosome.
- Women have two X chromosomes, whereas men only have one.
- When women inherit a faulty X chromosome, it it okay because they have another normally functioning one to compensate/dominate.
- When men inherit this chromosome, they have no other to compensate.
23
Q
What is a weakness of the genetic explanation of aggression? What is the counterargument for this?
A
- Determinism - implications for legal system and wider society, may result in a need for genetic screening.
- Theory should be treated with caution unless we are sure it is absolutely correct.
- Counterargument: if people know they have a predisposition for aggression due to genetics, they can develop coping techniques and avoid environmental stimuli.
24
Q
What is the definition of ethology?
A
The study of animals in natural settings - the findings are then generalised to humans because we all experience natural selection.
25
What is the definition of natural selection?
The process through which living organisms survive and adapt, as organisms better suited to the environment survive and reproduce.
26
What is the definition of adaptive?
Beneficial for survival, allowing an animal to stay alive and reproduce.
27
What is the definition of conspecifics?
Members of the same species
28
What is the definition of innate releasing mechanisms?
hard-wired networks of neurons in the brain that respond to an environmental stimulus (a sign or releaser such as a facial expression) by initiating a fixed action pattern.
29
What is the definition of fixed action patterns?
A set sequence of behaviours (in this case, aggression) which are stereotyped to occur only in specific conditions and do not require learning (i.e. they are innate).
30
What is the definition of cuckoldry?
the man raises an offspring that is not his own and so contributes to the survival of a rival’s genes and is left with fewer resources to invest in his own offspring in the future.
31
What is the definition of mate retention strategies?
Ways males retain their mates and try to deter them from sexual infidelity.
32
What is the definition of sexual jealousy?
An emotional response to the threat of infidelity - serves to motivate mate guarding etc.
33
What is ritualistic aggression (ethological explanation)? How is it adaptive?
- Aggression carried out in a set order.
- Threat displays: bearing teeth, hitting chest etc.
- Adaptive: allows competitors to assess relative strength before escalating a conflict, making the opponent back down instead of costly aggression, allowing for the survival of the species.
34
What did Lorenz point out about ritualistic aggression? How is it adaptive?
- Aggression between co-specifics ends with ritual appeasement displays signalling defeat e.g. wolves exposing their jugulars.
- signal of defeat inhibits further aggression, preventing death and so ensuring the survival of the species.
35
How is aggression adaptive by the dominance hierarchy explanation?
- Dominance hierarchies are established where the winner climbs the social ladder.
- Increased status leads to better choice of mates and more access to resources.
- Therefore adaptive because increased access to resources and mates means that it is naturally selected.
36
How is aggression explained by the territory explanation?
- The defeated animal normally establishes territory elsewhere instead of being killed.
- This means that the winner has less competition for resources in their area (less competition for food).
- Furthermore, animals being spread out means there is a reduced chance of them all starving.
- There aggression is adaptive as it aids survival and so is naturally selected.
37
What does the ethological explanation suggest about innate aggressive behaviour?
That it is mostly genetically determined, and therefore is adaptive (passed down for survival).
38
According to Lea, what are the six main features of fixed action patterns?
1. Stereotyped - unchanging sequence of behaviours
2. Universal - same in every member of the species
3. Unaffected by learning - same for every member of species regardless of learning.
4. ‘Ballistic’ - Follows an inevitable course once triggered which cannot be altered before it is completed.
5. Single-purpose - only occur in a specific situation and not any others
6. Response to specific identifiable sign stimulus (or a releaser if between conspecifics).
39
How are fixed action patterns triggered.
Environmental stimulus -> innate releasing mechanism -> fixed action pattern.
40
What was the procedure of Tinbergen’s 1951 study?
- During mating season male sticklebacks are a highly territorial bird, and develop a red spot on chest. If another male enters their territory in this period, a fixed action pattern is initiated. Sign stimulus (red spot) -> triggers the innate releasing mechanism.
- Tinbergen presented male sticklebacks with a series of differently shaped wooden models, some with a red spot on their underbelly and some without.
41
What were the findings of Tinbergen’s 1951 study?
- Regardless of shape, the male stickleback aggressively display if the model had a red spot. No red spot, no aggression.
- The FAPs were unchanging from one encounter to another, and always ran their course to completion once triggered.
42
What is the undermining evidence for the ethological explanation? (Nisbett)
- Nisbett found that there was a north-south divide in homicide rates in the U.S. with it being much more common in white males from the south.
- He found in a lab study that when southern males were insulted, they were more likely to become aggressive than northern males.
- Nisbett concluded this was due to learnt social behaviour which calls into question the validity of the explanation as it suggests that culture can override innate influences - not a complete explanation.
43
What is the supporting evidence for the ethological explanation of aggression? (Crossover)
- Brunner et al. Found that a low activity variant of the MAOA gene is closely associated with aggression.
- Research on the limbic system also suggests there is an innate releasing mechanism for aggression in human brains.
- Supports the validity of the explanation.
44
What is supporting evidence for the ethological explanation of aggression? (Anthropology)
- Anthropolical research suggests that there is ritualistic aggression present in human cultures.
- For example, Hoebel found that among Innuit eskimos, song duels are used to settle grudges and disputes.
- Supports that animal studies are generalisable to humans, as ritualistic aggression is also used by humans.
45
What is undermining evidence for the ethological explanation of aggression? (Goodall)
- Observation of chimpanzees in Tanzania.
- During a war, chimpanzees systematically attacked each other in a premeditated way, and on one occasion a chimpanzee was held down and bitten for 20 minutes.
- These attacks all occurred despite signs of appeasement, but these did not stop the aggression. This, combined with the fact that the killing was systematic, calls into question the validity fo the ethological explanation of aggression.
46
What are the six key words to use when talking about evolutionary explanations of human aggression?
- Adaptive
- Survival
- Reproduction
- Natural selection
- Aggressive genes get passed down
- Aggression becomes more widespread in the population
47
What is the sexual jealousy explanation of aggression? (Overview)
- Male aggression is motivated by jealousy to ensure their own paternity and genetic success.
- Men have paternity uncertainty because of the threat of cuckoldry.
- Men who avoid cuckoldry in the past have been more reproductively successful, so male aggressive strategies evolved to help retain their mate and deter them from sexual infidelity.
48
What are Wilson and Daly’s ‘mate retention strategies?’ (aggressive strategies)
- Direct guarding -> strategies to restrict freedom such as male vigilance, installing tracking apps, coming home early etc.
- Negative inducements -> strategies to deter infidelity such as violence, or threats of the consequences e.g. ‘I’ll kill you’ to prevent her from straying.
49
Describe Wilson et al. Findings (mate retention strategies)
- women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence at the hands of partners.
- 73% had required medical attention and 53% feared for their lives.
- Therefore mate retention strategies are linked to physical violence.
50
How does sexual jealousy help men reproduce successfully? How does this make the gene widespread in the population?
They are less likely to experience cuckoldry, so children they give resources are more likely to be theirs and so the gene is passed down to future generations, and so becomes widespread in the population.
51
What is the two mark definition of evolutionary explanations of aggression?
- Evolutionary explanations of aggression focus of the adaptive nature of aggression.
- They suggest aggression enhances survival or reproduction and so is naturally selected.
- This means that aggressive genes are passed down to future generations and so become more widespread in the population.
52
What are the three evolutionary explanations of aggression?
- Competition for resources.
- Sexual competition.
- Sexual jealousy.
53
What is the competition for resources (men being aggressive over resources) explanation of aggression?
- Aggressive men would have been more able to compete with others for resources such as food.
- Aggression therefore enhances their survival and likelihood of reproducing successfully (especially as women are attracted to men with resources).
- Therefore it is adaptive -> naturally selected -> become more widespread in the population.
54
What is the sexual competition (men being aggressive to other men) explanation of aggression?
- Ancestral men seeking females would have had to compete with other men.
- Aggression would have make them better at competing, making it more likely they reproduce successfully.
- Passed on to successive generations -> become widespread in the population.
55
What is the undermining evidence for the ethological explanation? (Rwanda)
- Cruelty often accompanies aggression, e.g. in the wide-scale slaughter in the Rwandan genocide where whole groups were killed.
- Humans also have tortured and mutilated even when the victim is not longer a threat, which is more likely to be due to deindividuation.
- The ethological explanation is therefore not completely valid as it cannot explain all instances of human aggression.
56
What is a real-world application of research into sexual jealousy?
- Could make people aware of indicators for domestic violence, as seeing the partner use mate-retention strategies could alert others to the threat of the relationship becoming violent.
- Counselling could then be used to stop the situation escalating further.
- Supports the external validity of the theory.
57
What is supporting evidence for the evolutionary explanation of aggression? (Daly and Wilson)
- Daly and Wilson found that some tribes bestow honour and status to men who have committed murder.
- Further research found that this was also the case in industrialised societies like the USA, where men who have committed most violence have most status.
- Supports that aggression could be due to lack of resources, as status needs to be gained to access them.
58
What is a weakness of research into evolutionary explanations of aggression? (Correlation)
- Most research is correlational, finding a link between aggression and mate retention behaviours, which does not allow us to draw cause and effect.
- Correlational research always has the downside of the impact of other factors such as cultural differences, because the variables are not manipulated.
- This means research into evolutionary explanations of aggression has low internal validity.
59
What is the definition of a social psychological explanation?
A theory arguing that aggression occurs as a result of the individuals characteristics and the features of the situation in which the behaviour occurs.
60
What is the definition of self-efficacy?
The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve our desired goal.
61
What is the definition of mediational processes in aggression?
Processes that come between the observation of the aggressive behaviour and the imitation of the aggressive behaviour that affect whether the aggression will be performed.
62
What is the definition of deindividuation?
A loss of self-identity and personal responsibility when we are in situations that increase our anonymity such as crowds.
63
How is aggression caused according to the frustration-aggression hypothesis? (Step by step)
- Suggests frustration always leads to aggression.
- Attempt to achieve a goal -> obstacle to goal by external factor -> frustration -> aggression drive -> environmental cues -> aggressive behaviour/displaced aggressive behaviour -> catharsis
64
What is the outline of aggression according to the frustration-aggression hypothesis? (Wordy)
A psychodynamic explanation of aggression which suggests frustration always leads to aggression, created by Dollard et al.
65
What is catharsis (frustration aggression hypothesis)?
When an aggressive drive is satisfied, removing negative emotion, making further aggression less likely.
66
How can aggression be displaced? (frustration-aggression hypothesis)
Displaced onto weaker, non-abstract alternatives (e.g. younger sibling) when the source of the frustration is either too abstract (e.g. government) or too powerful (e.g. a teacher).
67
What makes acting on the frustration (which only creates a readiness for aggression) much more likely according the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
The presence of certain cues in the environment e.g. a gun.
68
What is the a real-world application of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
- For states in the USA with open carry laws (guns do not need to be concealed), this could act as an environmental cue for aggression, and so this hypothesis could help reduce this threat.
69
What did Bushman find undermining the frustration-aggression hypothesis? (Punching bag)
- Participants who vented their anger by hitting a punching bag became more angry and aggressive rather than less, and doing nothing was actually more effective at reducing anger.
- Disproves the catharsis element of the hypothesis.
70
What is a weakness of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
- The theory is an example of psychic determinism (add example of how)
- implications for legal system
71
What did Berkowitz and LePage find that supports the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
- Participants who had been made angry gave greater electric shocks to a confederate when there were two guns on the table compared to other conditions where there were none.
- Suggests that the gun acted an environmental cue, supporting the validity of this element of the explanation.
72
What is the social learning theory of aggression? (Overview)
- Emphasises aggression being learnt through the observation of a role model that we identify with, either because of their status or because of a shared trait (e.g. age, gender)
73
What is the social learning theory of aggression? (Step by step explanation)
- Role model models behaviour which the observer then imitates (observational learning) -> If role model is rewarded, imitation is more likely (vicarious reinforcement) -> learning does not mean that the observer will necessarily imitate the behaviour -> mediational processes come between observation of aggressive behaviour and imitation of it (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation). Self-efficacy also plays a role, as if the observer is confident their aggression has been effective in the past, they will be more likely to repeat it.
74
What is a weakness of the SLT explanation of aggression?
- It has been criticised for underestimating the role of biological factors.
- There is evidence that other biological factors play a role (add examples e.g. the Amygdala and Charles Whitman)
- Incomplete explanation as cannot account for all cases of aggression.
75
What is supporting evidence for the SLT explanation of aggression?
Bandura et al study! (Elaborate)
- There was a short period during the study where the children could not play with some attractive toys, creating frustration.
- When put in the room with the Bobo doll, the children closely recreated the behaviour, with boys imitating more physical aggression, but both genders recreating the same amount of verbal aggression.
76
What is a weakness of the bobo doll study as support for SLT explanation of aggression? What is a counterargument for this?
- A doll is not a living person who cannot retaliate, so cannot explain aggression in the real world where there are consequences.
- Bandura countered this study by having children watch a film, and imitated the behaviour with the doll in the same manner, which is better support for the theory.
77
What is the deindividuation explanation of aggression? (Step by step)
Individuated state (constrained by social norms) -> Increase of anonymity -> loss of private/public self-awareness -> deindividuation -> responsibility is shared throughout the group so more aggression (more aggressive) + behaviour is more constrained by social norms (more aggressive).
78
What was Zimbardo’s study into deindividuation?
- Groups of four female undergrads give shocks to aid learning.
- Half wear bulky coats and hoods that hide their faces, are in a separate room and never have their names revealed.
- The other half had name tags, could see the person they were shocking.
- Unidentifiable participants held down the shock button for twice as long as those in the identifiable condition did.
79
What was Johnson and Downing’s study into deindividuation?
- One condition, women wear KKK outfits with their faces hidden, another condition they wore nurses outfits, and for the control condition they wore their own clothes.
- Compared to the control group, the KKK group gave more shocks and longer shocks and the nurses gave fewer and at lower levels, and were more compassionate to their ‘victims’.
- Suggests that both aggression and pro social behaviour can be caused by deindividuation.
80
What were Watson’s findings about deindividuation?
- collected data on how much warriors in 23 societies changed their appearance before war (war paint, tribal costumes etc.)
- He also recorded how much they mutilated, killed and tortured their victims.
- 12/15 societies which changed their appearance were highly aggressive, compared to 1/8 who did not change their appearance.
- Supports external validity of the theory as it suggests it can explain real world instances of aggression.
81
What is a real-world application of deindividuation theory?
- Can explain aggression online, such as on Xbox live, as sites like these promote deindividuation.
- ‘Handles’ are used to identify people, the experience is immersive, and their is a crowd.
- Research found a strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’ (hostile messages).
- Cyber bullying is an increasing trend, and can be explained by deindividuation theory.
82
What is an individuated state (deindividuation theory)?
We are easily identified by others so our behaviour is constrained by social norms (society discourages aggressive behaviour).
83
What are the two main features of deindividuation?
- Reduced private self-awareness: Our attention becomes focused outwards at events and so we pay less attention to our own beliefs and feelings.
- Reduced public self-awareness: As we are in a crowd, we realise our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others and so we worry less about how others see us and become less accountable for aggressive actions.
84
What are the two major explanations for institutional aggression in prisons?
- Dispositional explanations.
- Situational explanations.
85
What is institutional aggression?
Agressive behaviour which takes place within a formal organised setting such as prison.
86
What is a dispositional explanation of aggression?
Highlights the importance of an individuals personality/characteristics
87
What is a situational explanation?
Highlights the importance of the environment in which the behaviour occurs
88
What does the importation model suggest about how aggressive behaviour in prisons is caused?
- inmates who enter prison bring with them a subculture of criminality and so are more likely to be aggressive.
- aggression is not a product of the situation, but of the characteristics of the individuals within the situation.
89
What are mediating factors in the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression? What are three examples?
- Mediating factors are any personal characteristics inmates bring into prison with them.
- Gender, ethnicity, class.
90
How does aggression help inmates in prison? (Importation model)
- Used to navigate through a frightening and unfamiliar prison environment
- Establish power and influence
91
How does the deprivation model suggest aggression occurs in prisons?
It is the characteristics of the prison itself which are responsible for prison violence, as deprivation and the harsh conditions makes people cope through aggression.
92
What are three examples of things inmates lose in prison. How does losing these things lead to aggression? (deprivation model)
- Loss of heterosexual intimacy, loss of personal space, loss of safety
- The ‘pains’ of losing these things mean that inmates engage with violence as a reaction to the hurt they feel.
93
How does the prison regime increase aggression according to the deprivation model?
The prison regime, with random unpredictable ‘lockups’ to control behaviour creates frustration, and reduces stimulation by ‘goods’ such as TV, and this frustration is dealt with by aggression.
94
What supporting evidence is there for the deprivation model? (Wilson)
- Prison governor David Wilson set up two units for violent prisons which were less claustrophobic and ‘prison-like’ and gave a view of the outside, with radio music masking prison noise.
- Assaults on both inmates and staff were virtually eradicated.
- This supports that situational variables are the main cause of aggression.
95
What is the supporting evidence for the deprivation model? (McCorkle et al.)
- Study of 371 U.S. prisons
- Found that overcrowding, lack of privacy and lack of meaningful activity all influenced prison assaults.
- Further analysis of Texan prisons found that many homicides followed arguments between cell sharing inmates where a ‘boundary’ was crossed, such as drugs, sex, and personal possessions.
96
What is supporting/undermining evidence for both the importation and deprivation model of aggression in prisons?
- Both are challenged and supported by research evidence, so it could be both are correct.
- Research evidence found that the importation model better explained violence between inmates, and the deprivation model better explained violence to prison staff.
- It could be an interactionist approach is most appropriate, as it offers a fuller explanation of prison aggression, and overcomes the issue of determinism.
97
What supporting evidence for the importation model of institutional aggression is there? (High/low security)
- Research studying 561 males with similar offences, and placed half in a high-security prison and half in a low-security prison.
- Within two years, there was only a 3% difference in the violence at both prisons.
- This suggests that it is the characteristics imported into the prison which cause violence.
98
What is the support of the importation model of institutional aggression? (DeLisi et al.)
- Found that inmates with negative backgrounds e.g. child trauma, substance abuse etc were much more likely to engage in aggression than a control group without the same issues.
99
What is media?
Communication channels such as TV where news, entertainment and data are made available.
100
What are media influences on aggression?
Changes to aggressive behaviour attributed to media usage.
101
What was Bandura et al. Study on TV and aggression?
- Replication of the Bobo doll study, except the role model was on a film (being aggressive).
- Similarly, the children replicated the aggressive behaviour.
-
102
What is a study on the effect of computer games on aggression? (Bartholomew and Anderson)
- Bartholomew and Anderson
- 43 undergraduate students either assigned to play a violent or non-violent game for ten minutes.
- They then had to compete with a confederate in a reaction time game, and could blast white noise to punish the opponent.
- Those who played the violent game went to 5.79 decibels, whereas those who played the non-violent game only went to 4.6 decibels.
- Effect larger for men than women.
103
What is a study on the effect of computer games on aggression (DeLisi et al.)
- Study of 277 juvenile offenders with histories of serious aggressive behaviours.
- Structured interviews used to gather data on computer game playing and aggressive behaviour.
- There was a significant correlation, and the researchers argued that aggression should be a public health issue like HIV/AIDS.
104
What is a weakness of correlational studies being used to look at media influences on aggression?
Causal conclusions cannot be drawn, as a third factor could be at play and direction cannot be determined, and so does not have strong internal validity.
105
What is a weakness of experimental studies in looking at media influences on aggression?
Measures of aggression are often unrealistic and artificial, such as blasts of white noise. Also, in real life, there would be the threat of retaliation for the aggression.
106
What research supports that media influences behaviour but not necessarily in an aggressive way?
Granic and Lobel found that playing violent shooter games can increase the players capacity to think in 3D, develop problem-solving, and enhance creativity.
107
What study suggests that it is the frustration caused by … that games cause which causes aggression?
Przybylski - had player play either a violent first-person shooter game or a game where players fly a paper aeroplane, and found it was not the imagery but the lack of mastery which caused to frustration and aggression in both games.
108
How does desensitisation explain media influencing aggression? (flow diagram)
Repeated exposure to media -> reduced physiological arousal in SNS (i.e. sweating less) + reduced psychological arousal (negative attitudes to the violence) -> aggression is more likely.
109
How does disinhibition explain media influencing aggression? (flow diagram)
Normally: Aggression viewed as antisocial/harmful (SLT) -> therefore powerful social and psychological inhibitions prevent it.
Disinhibition: Repeated exposure to violent media weakens these restraints (inhibitions) -> aggression seems socially sanctioned (particularly if in the media their is justification, victims pain is hidden etc.) -> aggression is temporarily socially acceptable, making it more likely.
110
How does the cognitive priming theory explain media influences on aggression?
Repeatedly seeing violent media creates aggressive schema in memory -> exposure to aggressive media cues trigger the schema -> greater access to aggressive ideas in schema -> activates other aggressive thoughts in memory -> exposure to priming stimuli in aggressive situations triggers the schema leading to us being aggressive -> this can be specific or general.
111
what is the supporting evidence (straw dogs) for the desensitisation explanation?
- Weisz and Earls showed participants film 'straw dogs' with graphic rape scene, then had participants watch re-enactment of a trial.
- results compared to a group who watched a non-sexually violent film.
- (only men) who had seen straw dogs showed greater acceptance of rape myths and expressed less sympathy towards the victim.
- supports predictions of the theory, but not that they actually become aggressive.
112
What are the implications of the desensitisation theory?
- Could help troops in war survive the horrors of what they see.
- However could be detrimental also, as it could make people less likely to help others in destress as they become numb.
- Suggests that the theory has important implications, and that we could need to create media regulation to counteract these.
113
What is supporting evidence for the desensitisation explanation?
- A study showed participants (some habitual viewers of violent media) both violent and non-violent film clips.
- They measured physiological arousal using skin conductance.
- Habitual viewers showed lower levels of arousal, which correlated with the proactive aggression they then showed in a 'noise blast' task.
114
What is the supporting evidence for the disinhibition explanation? (shocks)
- Berkowitz and Alioto found that participants who watched a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (and longer) electric shocks to a confederate than those who watched a film containing reasonless aggression.
115
What is supporting evidence for the disinhibition explanation? (Boxing)
- participants shown a film of a boxing match, where either the loser takes a beating and dies, or there are no apparent consequences.
- Participants who did not see the consequences were more likely to be aggressive.
116
What is a weakness of the disinhibiton explanation?
- Other factors also influence disinhibition.
- Younger children, for example, cannot consider consequences so can be more violent.
- Children who grow up in households with strong norms against violence are unlikely to ever experience disinhibition.
117
What is supporting evidence for the cognitive priming explanation? (Bushman)
- Bushman found that participants who had watched a 15 minute section of a violent film had faster reaction time to aggressive words than those who watched a non-violent clip.
- Supports that the media acts as priming stimuli.
118
What is supporting evidence for cognitive priming? (Anderson and Dill)
- Found that participants who played a violent video game had more cognitively accessible aggressive thoughts than those who played non-violent.
- Those who played the violent video game were then also more aggressive (noise blasts)
119
What is the supporting evidence for cognitive priming? (song lyrics)
- Male participants listened to songs with derogatory and aggressive lyrics about women, and also neutral lyrics.
- Those in the first condition recalled more negative qualities about women are behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate.
Psychology
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