Research Methods Flashcards
Experimental Method
=manipulation of IV to measure effect on DV
- Aim=general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
- Hypothesis=clear, precise, testable statement that states relationship between variables to be investigated
=Directional- positive/negative direction
=Non-directional- states is a relationship but not specific - Operationalisation=clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Research Issues
- Extraneous variables=any variable, other than IV, that may affect DV
- Confounding variables=kind of EV but varies systematically with IV
- Demand characteristics=any cue from researcher or situation that may reveal true aims of study to participants who will manipulate their behaviour accordingly
- Investigator effects=any effect of investigator’s behaviour on research outcome
- Randomisation=use of chance methods to control for effects of bias when designing materials and deciding orders
- Standardisation=using exactly same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants
Experimental Designs- AO1
- Independent groups;
=participants allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Random allocation=control participant variables - Repeated measures:
=all participants take part in all conditions of experiment
Counterbalancing=control order effects when half experience one condition and vice versa - Matched pairs:
=pairs of participants matched on variable that may affect DV- one member assigned to A and B
Experimental Designs- AO3
- Independent groups:
~ participant variables=reduces validity- use random allocation to combat
~ less economical than repeated measures
+ order effects not a problem - Repeated measures:
~ order effects- use counterbalancing to combat
~ boredom / deterioration in performance
~ demand characteristics more likely
+ participant variables controlled=higher validity
+ fewer participants needed so more cost-effective - Matched pairs:
+ order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem
~ participants can never be matched exactly
~ matching time-consuming and expensive
Types of Experiment- Laboratory
- Conducted in highly controlled environment- manipulates IV and records effect on DV
+ high control confounding and extraneous variables=high internal validity
+ reliable as replication more possible due to high control
~ artificial so lacks generalisability=low external validity
~ demand characteristics more likely
~ low mundane realism
Types of Experiment- Field
- Takes place in natural setting within which IV manipulated and effect on DV recorded
+ high mundane realism as environment more natural=high external validity
~ lack of control of CV’s and EV’s=cause and effect more difficult to establish
~ ethical issues as consent and privacy
Types of Experiment- Natural
- Change in IV not brought about by researcher but would have happened anyway and effect on DV recorded
+ provide opportunity for research not otherwise undertaken
+ high external validity as real-world issues as evolve and happen
~ reduced opportunity for research=limit scope for generalisability
~ participants not randomly allocated
Types of Experiment- Quasi
- IV not determined by anyone- variables simply exist
+ controlled conditions=reliable
~ cannot randomly allocate participants=confounding variables
~ cannot claim IV caused any observed change
Sampling- Overview
- Population=group of people focus of researcher’s interest, from which smaller sample drawn
- Sample=group people take part research investigation grawn from target population=representative=generalisable
Sampling- Random
=all members target population equal chance being selected- ordered list of target population and lottery method used
+ potentially unbiased- EV’s and CV’s divided equally=high internal validity
~ difficult and time-consuming to conduct
~ unrepresentative sample
~ selected participants refuse to take part
Sampling- Systematic
=every nth member of target population selected- sampling frame produced and sampling system nominated
+ objective- no influence over who is chosen
~ time-consuming and participants may refuse to take part
Sampling- Stratified
=composition of sample reflects proportions of people in subgroups within target population- identify strata/proportions worked out/selected using random sampling
+ representative as reflects composition of population=generalisable
~ strata cannot reflect all ways people different so complete representation not possible
Sampling- Opportunity
=selecting anyone who happens to be willing and available at the time
+ convenient and cost-effective
~ unrepresentative of target population=not generalisable
~ researcher bias as control over participants
Sampling- Volunteer
=participants select themselves to be part of the sample
+ easy and less time-consuming
+ participants are eager and willing as it was their choice
~ volunteer bias- attracts certain demographic of individual
Ethical Issues
- Informed consent=making participants aware of aims of research, procedures, rights and what data used for- participants judgement without feeling obliged
- Deception=deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants during study
- Protection from harm=should not be placed at any more risk than would experience in day-to-day lives
- Privacy and confidentiality=right to control information about themselves
Ways of Dealing with Ethical Issues
- Informed consent:
consent letter detailing all info affect decision to participate
=presumptive consent- similar group give consent
=prior general consent- give consent to number of studies include deception - Deception and protection from harm:
Full debrief- true aims of study
=what data used for and reminded of right to withdraw
=offer advise regarding counselling - Confidentiality:
Maintain anonymity- numbers/initials
=reminded of protection of data throughout process and will not be shared
Pilot Studies and Single/Double-Blind
- Pilot study=small-scale version of investigation takes place before real one conducted- check everything works and allow any changes if necessary
- Single-blind procedure=participants not known aim of research or what condition they’re in
=not revealed until the end to control for CV’s and demand characteristics - Double-blind procedure=neither participants nor researcher knows aims of study or conditions
=used in drug trials with placebos - Control groups and conditions:
=experimental for control and comparison
Observational Techniques- Naturalistic and Controlled
- Naturalistic obs=watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
- Controlled obs=watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment
=strange situation - Evaluation:
+ special insight into behaviour
+ naturalistic=high external validity as findings generalised
+ controlled=reliable due to control
~ naturalistic=low reliability as lack of control
~ potential CV’s and EV’s
~ controlled=not generalisable
~ observer bias
Observational Techniques- Covert and Overt
- Covert obs=participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
- Overt obs=participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
- Evaluation:
+ covert=removes demand characteristics increasing internal validity
+ overt=more ethical
~ covert=less ethical
~ overt=demand characteristics
Observational Techniques- Participant and Non-Participant
- Participant obs=researcher becomes member of group whose behaviour they are watching/recording
- Non-participant obs=researcher remains outside of group whose behaviour they are watching/recording
- Evaluation:
+ participant=increased insight increasing external validity
+ non-participant=maintain objective psychological distance
~ participant=lose objectivity as identify too strongly
~ non-participant=lose valuable insight
