Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Experimental Method

A

=manipulation of IV to measure effect on DV

  • Aim=general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
  • Hypothesis=clear, precise, testable statement that states relationship between variables to be investigated
    =Directional- positive/negative direction
    =Non-directional- states is a relationship but not specific
  • Operationalisation=clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
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2
Q

Research Issues

A
  • Extraneous variables=any variable, other than IV, that may affect DV
  • Confounding variables=kind of EV but varies systematically with IV
  • Demand characteristics=any cue from researcher or situation that may reveal true aims of study to participants who will manipulate their behaviour accordingly
  • Investigator effects=any effect of investigator’s behaviour on research outcome
  • Randomisation=use of chance methods to control for effects of bias when designing materials and deciding orders
  • Standardisation=using exactly same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants
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3
Q

Experimental Designs- AO1

A
  • Independent groups;
    =participants allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
    Random allocation=control participant variables
  • Repeated measures:
    =all participants take part in all conditions of experiment
    Counterbalancing=control order effects when half experience one condition and vice versa
  • Matched pairs:
    =pairs of participants matched on variable that may affect DV- one member assigned to A and B
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4
Q

Experimental Designs- AO3

A
  • Independent groups:
    ~ participant variables=reduces validity- use random allocation to combat
    ~ less economical than repeated measures
    + order effects not a problem
  • Repeated measures:
    ~ order effects- use counterbalancing to combat
    ~ boredom / deterioration in performance
    ~ demand characteristics more likely
    + participant variables controlled=higher validity
    + fewer participants needed so more cost-effective
  • Matched pairs:
    + order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem
    ~ participants can never be matched exactly
    ~ matching time-consuming and expensive
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5
Q

Types of Experiment- Laboratory

A
  • Conducted in highly controlled environment- manipulates IV and records effect on DV

+ high control confounding and extraneous variables=high internal validity
+ reliable as replication more possible due to high control
~ artificial so lacks generalisability=low external validity
~ demand characteristics more likely
~ low mundane realism

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6
Q

Types of Experiment- Field

A
  • Takes place in natural setting within which IV manipulated and effect on DV recorded

+ high mundane realism as environment more natural=high external validity
~ lack of control of CV’s and EV’s=cause and effect more difficult to establish
~ ethical issues as consent and privacy

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7
Q

Types of Experiment- Natural

A
  • Change in IV not brought about by researcher but would have happened anyway and effect on DV recorded

+ provide opportunity for research not otherwise undertaken
+ high external validity as real-world issues as evolve and happen
~ reduced opportunity for research=limit scope for generalisability
~ participants not randomly allocated

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8
Q

Types of Experiment- Quasi

A
  • IV not determined by anyone- variables simply exist

+ controlled conditions=reliable
~ cannot randomly allocate participants=confounding variables
~ cannot claim IV caused any observed change

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9
Q

Sampling- Overview

A
  • Population=group of people focus of researcher’s interest, from which smaller sample drawn
  • Sample=group people take part research investigation grawn from target population=representative=generalisable
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10
Q

Sampling- Random

A

=all members target population equal chance being selected- ordered list of target population and lottery method used

+ potentially unbiased- EV’s and CV’s divided equally=high internal validity
~ difficult and time-consuming to conduct
~ unrepresentative sample
~ selected participants refuse to take part

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11
Q

Sampling- Systematic

A

=every nth member of target population selected- sampling frame produced and sampling system nominated

+ objective- no influence over who is chosen
~ time-consuming and participants may refuse to take part

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12
Q

Sampling- Stratified

A

=composition of sample reflects proportions of people in subgroups within target population- identify strata/proportions worked out/selected using random sampling

+ representative as reflects composition of population=generalisable
~ strata cannot reflect all ways people different so complete representation not possible

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13
Q

Sampling- Opportunity

A

=selecting anyone who happens to be willing and available at the time

+ convenient and cost-effective
~ unrepresentative of target population=not generalisable
~ researcher bias as control over participants

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14
Q

Sampling- Volunteer

A

=participants select themselves to be part of the sample

+ easy and less time-consuming
+ participants are eager and willing as it was their choice
~ volunteer bias- attracts certain demographic of individual

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15
Q

Ethical Issues

A
  • Informed consent=making participants aware of aims of research, procedures, rights and what data used for- participants judgement without feeling obliged
  • Deception=deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants during study
  • Protection from harm=should not be placed at any more risk than would experience in day-to-day lives
  • Privacy and confidentiality=right to control information about themselves
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16
Q

Ways of Dealing with Ethical Issues

A
  • Informed consent:
    consent letter detailing all info affect decision to participate
    =presumptive consent- similar group give consent
    =prior general consent- give consent to number of studies include deception
  • Deception and protection from harm:
    Full debrief- true aims of study
    =what data used for and reminded of right to withdraw
    =offer advise regarding counselling
  • Confidentiality:
    Maintain anonymity- numbers/initials
    =reminded of protection of data throughout process and will not be shared
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17
Q

Pilot Studies and Single/Double-Blind

A
  • Pilot study=small-scale version of investigation takes place before real one conducted- check everything works and allow any changes if necessary
  • Single-blind procedure=participants not known aim of research or what condition they’re in
    =not revealed until the end to control for CV’s and demand characteristics
  • Double-blind procedure=neither participants nor researcher knows aims of study or conditions
    =used in drug trials with placebos
  • Control groups and conditions:
    =experimental for control and comparison
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18
Q

Observational Techniques- Naturalistic and Controlled

A
  • Naturalistic obs=watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
  • Controlled obs=watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment
    =strange situation
  • Evaluation:
    + special insight into behaviour
    + naturalistic=high external validity as findings generalised
    + controlled=reliable due to control
    ~ naturalistic=low reliability as lack of control
    ~ potential CV’s and EV’s
    ~ controlled=not generalisable
    ~ observer bias
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19
Q

Observational Techniques- Covert and Overt

A
  • Covert obs=participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
  • Overt obs=participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
  • Evaluation:
    + covert=removes demand characteristics increasing internal validity
    + overt=more ethical
    ~ covert=less ethical
    ~ overt=demand characteristics
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20
Q

Observational Techniques- Participant and Non-Participant

A
  • Participant obs=researcher becomes member of group whose behaviour they are watching/recording
  • Non-participant obs=researcher remains outside of group whose behaviour they are watching/recording
  • Evaluation:
    + participant=increased insight increasing external validity
    + non-participant=maintain objective psychological distance
    ~ participant=lose objectivity as identify too strongly
    ~ non-participant=lose valuable insight
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21
Q

Observational Design- Ways of Recording Data

A
  • Unstructured observation=write down everything that they see
    =rich in detail
    =small-scale with few participants
  • Structured observation=simplify target behaviours to be focus using behavioural categories
  • Evaluation:
    + structured- easy to record and systematic
    + structured- quantitative so easy to analyse
    + unstructured- data rich
    ~ unstructured- qualitative so difficult to analyse
    ~ unstructured- observer bias
22
Q

Observational Design- Behavioural Categories

A

=when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)

  • Evaluation:
    + data more structured and objective
    ( categories should be clear and unambiguous/all forms of target behaviour included/categories should not overlap)
23
Q

Observational Design- Sampling Methods

A
  • Event sampling=target behaviour is first established and researcher records every time it occurs
  • Time sampling=target time frame is established and researcher records everything that occurs each time
  • Evaluation:
    + ES- useful when target behaviour could be missed by TS
    + TS- effective in reducing number of observations have to be made
    ~ ES- may overlook important details
    ~ TS- observations unrepresentative of observation as whole
24
Q

Self-Report Techniques- Questionnaires

A

=set of written questions used to asses person’s thoughts and/or experiences

  • Open questions=no fixed range of answers- qualitative
  • Closed questions=fixed number of responses- quantitative
  • Evaluation:
    + cost-effective- large amounts of data quickly and distributed to many people
    + data straightforward to analyse
    ~ demand characteristics- social desirability bias
    ~ response bias- replying in similar way
25
Self-Report Techniques- Interviews
=person asks set of questions to assess interviewee's thoughts/experiences - Structured=pre-determined set of questions asked in fixed order - Unstructured=no set questions- certain topic but free-flowing - Semi-structured=list of questions but can ask follow-up questions - Evaluation: + structured- reliable as standardised + unstructured- more insightful ~ structured- limited richness of data ~ unstructured- interviewer bias ~ social desirability bias
26
Self-Report Design
- Designing questionnaires: =likert scale- strongly agree/disagree =rating scale- numbers represent strength of feeling =fixed-choice option- tick boxes - Designing interviews: =standardised interview schedule to reduce interviewer bias =quiet room / warm-up neutral questions / reminded of strictest confidence - Writing good questions: =avoid overuse of jargon =avoid emotive language and leading questions =avoid double-barrelled questions and double negatives
27
Correlations
=relationship (strength and direction) between two co-variables- plotted on scattergram - Positive correlation=one co-variable increases and so does the other - Negative correlation=one co-variable increases and the other decreases - Zero correlation=no relationship between co-variables - Evaluation: + useful measure of how two variables related + quick and economical to carry out ~ correlation not causation ~ an intervening variable may be responsible for the relationship ~ sometimes misused/misinterpreted
28
Types of Data- Qualitative and Quantitative
=Qualitative-non-numerical =Quantitative-numerical - Evaluation: + qual- data rich + qual- high external validity + quant- easy to analyse + quant- objective ~ qual- difficult to analyse ~ qual- subjective interpretations open to bias ~ qual- fails to represent real life
29
Types of Data- Primary and Secondary
=Primary- data collected by the researcher themself for the purpose of their own investigation =Secondary- data collected by someone else but can be applied to the researcher's investigation - Meta-analysis=number of studies identified with same aims/hypotheses- results pooled together and joint conclusion produced - Evaluation: + primary- authentic + secondary- inexpensive and easily accessed + meta- high validity as large, varied sample ~ primary- time and effort ~ secondary- validity challenged due to content of data ~ meta- publication bias
30
Measures of Central Tendency
=general term for any measure of average value in a set of data- used in descriptive stats (graphs/tables etc) - Mean=adding up all values and dividing by total number of values + more representative ~ easily distorted by extreme values - Median=central value in a set of ordered, chronological data + extreme values do not affect it + easy to calculate ~ less sensitive as values ignored - Mode=most frequently occurring value in a set of data + easy to calculate ~ crude measure
31
Measures of Dispersion
=general term for any measure of the spread in a set of scores - Range=subtracting lowest score from the highest score (and adding one as mathematical correction) + easy to calculate ~ only takes into account most extreme values ~ does not indicate numbers grouped around mean or spread out - Standard deviation=tells us by how much, on average, each score deviates from the mean + much more precise ~ can be distorted by extreme values
32
Presentation of Quantitative Data- Tables and Graphs
- Summarising data in a table: =when tables appear in a results section, they have been converted to descriptive stats =include summary paragraph explaining numbers and drawing conclusions - Bar charts: =difference in mean values easily seen =nominal data (categorical) =separate bars as separate conditions - Histograms: =touching bars as continuous data =area of bar represents frequency - Scattergrams: =represents strength and direction of relationship between co-variables
33
Presentation of Quantitative Data- Distributions
- Normal distribution=symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped curve =mean, median, mode at highest peak - Skewed distributions=spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end =positive skew- long tail is on positive(right) side of peak and distribution concentrated on left =negative skew- long tail on negative(left) side of peak and distribution concentrated on right
34
Peer Review and Psychological Research and the Economy- the Role of Peer Review
=the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality - Main aims: =allocate research funding =validate quality and relevance of research =suggest amendments - Evaluation: =anonymity- of reviewer for more honest appraisal- some use as means to criticise other researchers as they are in direct competition =publication bias- prefer to publish significant findings to increase their credibility- false impression of psychology =burying groundbreaking research- suppressing opposition to mainstream theories- slows down rate of change
35
Peer Review and Psychological Research and the Economy- Implications for the Economy
=the state of a country/region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services - Attachment research into role of the father: =showed both parents equally capable of providing emotional support for healthy development- promoting flexible working arrangements =modern parents better equipped maximise income and contribute more effectively to economy - Development of treatments for mental disorders: =absence from work costs economy £15 billion/year =1/3 absences moderate health disorders =patients assessed quickly and receive swift access to treatment =can manage conditions effectively and return to work- economic benefit is considerable
36
A2- Case Studies
=in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event - Qualitative data usually- case history of individual using interviews/questionnaires etc - Longitudinal with potential additional data from family and friends - Evaluation: + rich data + contribute to understanding of typical functioning + generate hypotheses for future study ~ not generalisable ~ subjective selection and interpretation of researcher=low validity
37
A2- Content Analysis
=enables indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce - Coding and quantitative data: =coding- the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories- counting how many times something appears - Thematic analysis and qualitative data: =thematic analysis- inductive and qualitative approach to analysis involving identifying implicit/explicit ideas within the data =themes will emerge once the data has been coded - Evaluation: + navigates ethical issues well + communications have high external validity + produces qual and quant data ~ indirect study so analysed outside context in which occurred ~ lack objectivity
38
A2- Reliability- Ways of Assessing
=how consistent a measuring device is - Test-retest reliability: =assessing the same person via the same means on two different occasions =must be sufficient time in between =if correlated above 0.8 then reliable - Inter-observer reliability: =extent to which agreement between two observers involved in observations =same behavioural categories but record own data separately =if correlated above 0.8 then reliable
39
A2- Reliability- Improving Reliability
- Questionnaires: =test-retest =correlation coefficient exceeding 0.8 =low test-retest then changed/rewritten- replace open questions with closed - Interviews: =inter-interviewer =interviewers properly trained so no leading questions =more easily avoided in structured interviews - Observations: =inter-observer =behavioural categories properly operationalised =categories should not overlap =low inter-observer then further training - Experiments: =standardised procedures
40
A2- Validity- Types
=extent to which observed effect is genuine- measure what supposed to and generalisable - Internal validity=whether observed effects due to manipulation of IV =threat to this is demand characteristics - External validity=whether research can be generalised to other settings, populations, eras =ecological- extent to which findings generalised to other settings/situations =temporal- extent to which findings generalised to historical times/eras
41
A2- Validity- Ways of Assessing and Improving Validity
- Face validity=when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether appears measure what supposed to - Concurrent validity=extent to which psychological measure relates to existing similar measure- results similar to other test - Experiments: =control group- internal =standardised procedures- internal =single/double blind procedures- internal - Questionnaires: =lie scale- control social desirability bias- internal =assuring anonymity - Observations: =minimal intervention- ecological =behavioural categories - Qualitative research: =depth and detail- ecological =interpretative validity- extent to which interpretation of events matches that of participants =triangulation
42
A2- Probability and Significance
=Probability=measure of the likelihood that particular event will occur- 0=statistical impossibility and 1=statistical certainty =Significance=how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists - Alternative hypothesis=directional/non-directional - Null hypothesis=no difference between conditions =stats test determines which hypothesis accepted and rejected - Significance level=point at which claim discovered large enough difference/correlation to claim an effect has been found- 0.05 / 5% = p ≤ 0.05 = due to chance
43
A2- Use of Stats Tables and Type I/II Errors
- Calculated value compared to critical value from table =one-tailed (directional) or two-tailed (non-directional) =number of participants/degrees of freedom =level of significance - 0.05=standard level of significance 0.01=more stringent level- studies with human costs (drug trials) 0.1=more lenient as significance not found at lower level - Type I error (false positive)=null rejected, alternative accepted but should be other way around =0.1 - Type II error (false negative)=null accepted, alternative rejected but should be other way around =0.01 =0.05 balances risk
44
A2- Choosing A Statistical Test
- Used to determine whether difference/correlation found in an investigation is significant - Levels of measurement Nominal=categoric Ordinal=rate/scale Interval=numerical with sizes- measurement Difference Correlation Un Re N Chi Sign Chi O Man Wil Spear I Un Re Pea Central tendency Dispersion Nominal Mode N/A Ordinal Median Range Interval Mean S.D - Parametric test Interval data Normal distribution Homogeneity of variance
45
A2- Mann-Whitney U
- Requirements: Difference Unrelated Ordinal - U=where both groups meet on critical value table
46
A2- Wilcoxon T
- Requirements Difference Related Ordinal - T=participant value in critical table
47
A2- Unrelated t-test
- Requirements Difference Unrelated Interval - df=Na+Nb-2
48
A2- Related t-test
- Requirements Difference Related Interval - df=N-1
49
A2- Spearman’s Rho
- Requirements Correlation Ordinal - rho=participant value in critical table
50
A2- Pearson’s r
- Requirements Correlation Interval - r=df=N-2
51
A2- Chi-Squared
- Requirements Difference/correlation Unrelated Nominal - df=(rows-1)(columns-1) - Draw contingency table 2x2 = 2 groups and 2 variables But extra column and row for totals
52
A2- Features of a Science
- Paradigm and paradigm shift- Kuhn: =shared set of assumptions =psychology has multiple paradigms whereas natural sciences have one universal=not scientific =paradigm shift when contradictory evidence replaces old paradigm due to scientific revolution - Theory construction and hypothesis testing: =gathering evidence via direct observation =hypotheses are tested to determine whether supported and scientific - Falsifiability- Popper: =concepts only scientific if can be proven false by the evidence =psychology allows for falsifiability through alternative and null hypothesis - Replicability- Popper: =only scientific if findings repeatable across different contexts and circumstances =leads to validity, reliability and generalisability - Objectivity and empirical method: =biases cannot influence data or behaviour of participants- more control is more objective =importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience