Gender Flashcards
1
Q
Sex and Gender
A
- Sex- biological differences between males and females
Chromosomes, hormones, anatomy
Female=XX
Male=XY
Nature - Gender- psychological and cultural differences between males and females
Attitudes, behaviours, social roles
Nurture - Gender dysphoria- when your biological sex does not match the gender you identify yourself with
- Sex-role stereotypes- set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected for males and females in a society/social group
Reinforced by institutions
2
Q
Androgyny- AO1
A
- Androgyny- displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in personality
- Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)
20 masculine, feminine and neutral characteristics
Rate yourself on a 7-point scale
Masculine, androgynous (high masc and high fem), undifferentiated, feminine
High androgyny=high well-being as wide breadth of traits
3
Q
Androgyny- AO3
A
- Quantitative approach +
Numericals useful to quantify DV
Spence- more to gender identity so qualitative methods better at analysing
Could combine different scales
Both methods=most useful - Valid and reliable +
Piloted with <1000 students- results corresponded with p’s own gender identity=valid
Follow-up study- similar scores to when tested a month later=test-retest reliability - Self-awareness -
Rating yourself requires understanding of personality/behaviour
Gender=social construct so open to interpretation
Scoring system subjective and application of scale may differ
BSRI not objective or scientific
4
Q
The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones- AO1
A
- Chromosomes- made from DNA in nucleus of living cells- genes determine characteristics
23rd pair=sex
Females=XX
Makes=XY
Sex determined by sperm as carries SRY- testes to develop- androgens - Hormones- biochemical substance circulates in blood, targets certain organs- short term but powerful
Development of reproductive organs - Testosterone
Make sex organs
Aggression- competition for mates
Hunter role enhanced by aggressiveness - Oestrogen
Female sex organs
Emotionality and irritability in cycle
Premenstrual tension - Oxytocin
Women produce more
Giving birth- stimulates lactation
Reduces cortisol so becomes love hormone
5
Q
The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones- AO3
A
- Evidence for testosterone +
Wang- hypogonadism=not enough testosterone
227 hypo men therapy- improved libido, mood, muscle strength
Powerful impact on sexual arousal - Social factors ignored -
Hofstede- gender roles due to social norms than biology
Individualist=more masculine
Collectivist=more feminine
Challenges biological explanations - Reductionist -
Ignoring alternative explanations
Cognitive approach=schema- not adequately explained by biology
Psychodynamic approach=childhood experiences
Gender more complex than biology
6
Q
Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns- AO1
A
- Kleinfelter’s
1/600 males
XXY
2/3 with Kelinfleter’s not aware of it
Physical- reduced body hair / breast development / rounding of body contours / clumsy
Psychological- poor language and reading ability / passive - Turner’s
1/5000 females
XO
Physical- no menstrual cycle / no breasts / shield chest / webbed neck / looks prepubescent
Psychological- high reading ability / low mathematics / socially immature
7
Q
Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns- AO3
A
- Nature-Nurture debate +
K+T against chromosome-typical=psychological and behavioural differences
Inferred differences have biological basis due to chromosome structure
Nature has powerful effect - Real-world application +
Continued research=earlier and more accurate diagnosis and better outcomes
Study of 87 K- identified and treated at young age=benefits to managing condition
Increased awareness has application - Sampling issue -
Only those with most severe symptoms are identified=typical symptoms may be distorted
Boada- prospective studies=more accurate picture of characteristics- many K=academically successful
Typical picture may be exaggerated
8
Q
Cognitive Explanations- Kohlberg’s Theory- AO1
A
- child’s understanding of gender increase with age due to biological maturation
- Stage 1- gender identity
Age 2
Can identify themself as boy/girl
Can identify others at age 3
Understanding does not stretch beyond labelling
Not aware sex is permanent - Stage 2- gender stability
Age 4
Realisation always stay same gender
Cannot apply logic to others
Confused by external changes - Stage 3- gender constancy
Age 6
Gender remains same across time and situations
Can apply this logic to other people
Not confused by external changes
Gender appropriate role models to imitate
Develop gender stereotypes
9
Q
Cognitive Explanations- Kohlberg’s Theory- AO3
A
- Research support +
Damon- George liked to play with dolls- children asked to comment on story
Age 4=fine for George
Age 6=wrong for George- developed understanding of gender stereotypes
Constancy=stereotyping - Methodological problem -
Bem- criticised methodology- not surprising children confused by gender staying the same as identify through clothing
Genitalia=better way to identify sex
40% 3-5=constancy when naked photo of child - Degrees of constancy -
Martin- when and how understanding of own and others genders affects behaviours remains unclear
Different degrees of constancy- initially importance of gender by age 6 then heighten responsiveness to gender norms
Gradual process and begins earlier
10
Q
Cognitive Explanations- Gender Schema Theory- AO1
A
- mental framework of beliefs and expectations derived from experience related to gender
- understanding of gender changes with age- once gender identity (2-3) child searches environment for info to encourage gender schema
- schemas formed around stereotypes- by 6, child has fixed idea of what is appropriate for behaviour
- better understanding of schema appropriate to own gender (ingroup) rather than opposite (outgroup)
- when 8, develop schema for both genders
11
Q
Cognitive Explanations- Gender Schema Theory- AO3
A
- Research support +
Martin+Halverson own study=under 6 more likely remember photos of gender appropriate behaviour
Would change gender of person doing gender-inappropriate behaviour
GST predicts child under 6 do this - Earlier gender identity -
Longitudinal study- reports from mothers of child’s language 9-21 months
Gender identity=how and when child label as boy/girl
Occurred at 19 months as soon as child talks=have GI before this - Cultural differences +
Cherry- GS influences culturally-appropriate behaviour
Traditional culture=socialise schema of homemaker woman and breadwinner male
GST explains schema transmitted between members
12
Q
Other Explanations- Psychodynamic- AO1
A
- Freud- psychosexual stages OAPLG- children have GI in phallic stage (6)
- Oedipus complex
Incestuous feeling at mum / hatred for dad / castration anxiety / resolve conflict as identifies father / internalises male gender identity - Electra complex (Jung)
Penis envy / hatred for mum / thinks cut both penis off / resolves conflict with desire to have children / identifies and internalise female general identity - Little Hans=case study basis of Oedipus complex
Phobia of horses due to fear of castration- displacement defence mechanism
13
Q
Other Explanations- Psychodynamic- AO3
A
- The Oedipus complex +
Normal development depends on being raised by male parent
Rekers+Morey- GI boys on interviews- ‘gender disturbed’ 75% no father
No father=negative impact GI - Female development -
Electra complex=Jung
Freud said women mystery to him- penis envy reflected Victorian era where men had power
Horney- men experience womb envy
Androcentric - Pseudoscientific -
Freud criticised lack of rigour in methods
Many concepts untestable because unconscious
Popper- unscientific as cannot be falsified
Questions validity of theory
14
Q
Other Explanations- Social Learning Theory- AO1
A
- Direct reinforcement
Children encouraged for gender appropriate behaviour
Differential reinforcement- ways encouraged to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour
Through this child learns GI - Indirect reinforcement
If consequences of another behaviour is favourable, likely to be imitated by child - Identification and modelling
Child attaches to role model- attractive, high-status, same sex
Modelling- precise demonstration behaviour imitated by observer - Meditational processes
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
15
Q
Other Explanations- Social Learning Theory- AO3
A
- Research support +
Smith+Lloyd- babies dressed as either boys/girls
Assumed boy=hammer shaped rattle- adventurous
Assumed girl=cuddly doll- passive
Differential reinforcement - Cultural changes +
Less distinction between masculine and feminine
No changes in biology means shift better explained by SLT than biology
New forms gender behaviour may be reinforced - No developmental sequence -
SLT=modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour occurs at any age
Illogical that child two learns in same way as child nine
Conflicts with Kohlberg- child not active in gender development until constancy
Age and maturation not considered by SLT
16
Q
Influence of Culture on Gender Roles- AO1
A
- Culture- ideas, customs and social behaviour of particular group of people or society
- Cultural differences (nurture)
Mead- Papua New Guinea
Arapesh=gentle and responsive
Mundugumor=aggressive and hostile
Tchambuli=women dominant and men passive
Gender roles culturally determined - Cultural similarities (nature)
Buss- consistent patterns mate preference 37 countries all continents
Women sought men offered wealth/resources
Men sought women offered youth/attractive
Munroe+Munroe- most societies=gender appropriate division of labour
17
Q
Influence of Culture on Gender Roles- AO3
A
- Research support +
Hofstede- industrialised cultures=status of women due to increased role in workplace
Breakdown stereotypes in industrial societies
Stereotypes in traditional societies
Gender roles determined by culture - Mead’s research -
Made generalisations on short period study
Freeman- follow up study, Mead misled p’s and preconceptions influenced events
Observer bias and ethnocentrism
18
Q
Influence of Media on Gender Roles- AO1
A
- Media- communication channels through which news, educations and data are made available
- Provides role models who child identify and imitate
- Rigid stereotypes
Men=advice-givers
Women=advice-seekers
Furnham+Farragher- men in autonomous roles, women familial roles - Self-efficacy
Seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviour, increases belief capable carrying out behaviour in future
Mitra- girls who watched detective drama=more capable working outside home
19
Q
Influence of Media on Gender Roles- AO3
A
- Cultivation theory +
More time in media world=more likely believe reflects social reality
Bond+Drongos- positive correlation watching Jersey Shore and causal sex
Media cultivates perception of reality - Passive recipients -
Durkin- even young children not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
Norms in child family=bigger determiner attitude/behaviour
Media representations confirm gender norms=reinforced child’s mind
20
Q
Atypical Gender Development (GD)- Biological Explanations- AO1
A
- Gender Dysphoria- persistent feelings of identification with opposite gender and discomfort with own sex
- Brain sex theory
Bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BST)
Larger in men
GD due to size of BST corresponding to gender identify with, not bio. sex
Kruijver- transgender women=small BST - Genetic factors
Coolidge- 157 twins- 62% variance due to genetic factors
Heylens- twins where one in pair had GD- 9 MZ concordant for GD 0 DZ
21
Q
Atypical Gender Development (GD)- Biological Explanations- AO3
A
- Contradictory evidence -
Pol- changes in transgender brains using MRI during hormone treatment- size BST changed
Kruijver+Zhou- BST examined post mortem and after hormone treatment - Other brain differences +
Rametti- white matter (sexually dismorphic)
Analysed brains before hormone treatment
White matter corresponded to gender identified as, rather than sex
22
Q
Atypical Gender Development (GD)- Social Explanations- AO1
A
- Social constructionism
Gender identity does not reflect bio. differences and concept invented by society
Confusion due to society forcing people to pick a gender
McClintock- New Guinea- males labelled girls at birth as have labia and clitoris- genitals changed at puberty due to increase testosterone- formed penis- men, women, women who become men - Psychoanalytic theory
Ovesey+Person- social relationships cause GD
Boys experience separation anxiety before GI and experiences symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety
Boy internalises female gender identity and becomes mother
Stoller- GD bio. males=overly close relationships with mother
23
Q
Atypical Gender Development (GD)- Social Explanations- AO3
A
- Social constructionism +
More than two genders=challenge traditional notions male and female
Increasing non-binary=cultural understanding catching up with lived experience of many
Gender identity=social construction - Psychoanalytic theory -
Ovesey+Person=not adequate account GD in bio. females as only applies to trans females
Rekers- GD in assigned male at birth=more likely absence of father than fear separation of mother
