Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Offender Profiling- Top-Down Approach- AO1

Answer 1

• Offender profiling=behavioural+analytical tool help investigators predict and profile characteristics unknown offenders
• Top-down=FBI / interviews sexually motivated murderers
  =starting with pre-established typology and working down to assign offenders as organised/disorganised
• Organised offender=evidence of planning / has M.O / socially and sexually competent / higher IQ
• Disorganised offender=little evidence of planning / leaves clues at scene / socially and sexually incompetent / lower IQ
• Constructing FBI profile
  Data assimilation=review evidence
  Crime scene classification=organised/disorganised
  Crime reconstruction=hypotheses
  Profile generation

Question 2

Offender Profiling- Top-Down Approach- AO3

Answer 2

• Research support +
  Canter=analysis 100 US murders
  Smallest space analysis=correlations across samples of behaviour
  Found subset of features of serial killings matched FBI’s typology for organised offenders
  Increased validity
• Wider application +
  Meketa=top-down applied burglary=85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states
  Uses organised/disorganised distinction but adds impersonal and opportunistic categories
• Flawed evidence -
  FBI profiling=36 murder interviews- 25 serial killers, 11 single/double murder
  24 organised / 12 disorganised
  Canter=poor sample- not random, large or different kinds offender
  Not standardised and not comparable
  Not sound, scientific basis

Question 3

Offender Profiling- Bottom-Up Approach- AO1

Answer 3

• Bottom-up=Profilers work up from evidence collected from scene to develop hypotheses about characteristics, motivation, background
• Investigative psychology=matches details from crime scene with statistical analysis of offender behaviour patterns on database
  Comparison / committed by same person
  =interpersonal coherence- interaction with victim=same as everyday life
  =significance time and place- where offender living
  =forensic awareness
• Geographical profiling=crime mapping of home of offender- spatial consistency- centre of gravity=future offences by geographical locations of previous crimes- Canter’s circle theory
  =marauder- operates in close proximity to home base
  =commuter- travelled distance from usual residence

Question 4

Offender Profiling- Bottom-Up Approach- AO3

Answer 4

• Evidence for investigative psychology +
  Canter+Heritage=analysis 66 sexual assault using smallest space analysis
  Behaviours=common in different samples behaviour
  Characteristic pattern=whether more offences committed by same person
  People consistent in behaviour
• Evidence for geographical profiling +
  Lundrigan+Canter=collated 120 murder cases
  Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency
  Body disposal site=centre of gravity- creating circular effect around home base=middle of pattern
  More noticeable for marauders
• Geographical information insufficient -
  Success reliant on quality of data police provide
  75% crimes not reported
  Questions utility of approach as relies on accuracy of geographical data
  Other factors just as important in creating profile

Question 5

Biological Explanations- Historical Approach (Atavistic Form)- AO1

Answer 5

• Historical approach=Lombroso
  Criminals=genetic throwbacks- primitive subspecies biologically different non-criminals
• Biological approach=offenders lacked evolutionary development and would turn to crime
  Offending behaviour=rooted in genes (innate)- offender not to blame for actions
• Atavistic form=offender subtype identified by physiological markers- features of face and head
  =cranial- narrow brow / strong jaw / facial asymmetry / dark skin
  Insensitivity to pain / tattoos / unemployment
• Offender types
  =murderers- bloodshot eyes / curly hair / long ears
  =sexual deviants- glinting eyes / fleshy lips / large ears
• Lombroso’s research
  383 dead convicts / 3839 living ones
  40% criminal acts=people with atavistic characteristics

Question 6

Biological Explanations- Historical Approach (Atavistic Form)- AO3

Answer 6

• Lombroso’s legacy +
  Lombroso=father of modern criminology
  Shifting away moralistic discourse to scientific
  Theory heralded beginning of offender profiling
• Contradictory evidence -
  Goring=anything physically atypical about offenders
  3000 offenders and non-offenders=no evidence offenders have particular facial/cranial structures
• Poor control -
  Failed to control variables
  Did not compare with control group=could have accounted for confounding variables
  Research=links between crime and social conditions
  Research does not meet modern scientific standards

Question 7

Biological Explanations- Genetic- AO1

Answer 7

• Genetic explanation=offenders inherit gene/combo of genes that predispose to commit crime
• Twin and adoption studies
  Christiansen=concordance offender behaviour in 35% MZ and 13% DZ
  Checked against police records=underlying traits also inherited
  Crowe=bio mother criminal record=50% same thing by 18
• Candidate genes
  Tiihonen=MAOA and CDH13=violent crime
  MAOA=regulates serotonin- aggressive behaviour
  CDH13=substance abuse
  5-10% violent crime due to these genes
• Diathesis-stress model=combination of genetic predisposition and bio/psycho trigger=offending behaviour

Question 8

Biological Explanations- Genetic- AO3

Answer 8

• Issues with twin evidence -
  Assumed environment same as twins brought up together
  Shared environment assumption=MZ more than DZ as look identical so treated more similarly
  Higher concordance rates as treated more similar
• Support for diathesis-stress +
  Mednick=neither bio/adoptee parents criminals=13.5% adoptees that did
  Rose to 20% when either bio parent had conviction
  24.5% when adoptive and bio had conviction

Question 9

Biological Explanations- Neural- AO1

Answer 9

• Neural differences involved those with antisocial personality disorder(APD)=reduced emotion, lack of empathy, characterises convicted offenders
• Prefrontal cortex=Raine- APD brain
  APD=reduced prefrontal cortex activity (regulates emotional behaviour)
  11% reduction volume grey matter in APD prefrontal cortex
• Mirror neurons
  Keysers=only when asked to empathise did their empathy reaction activate (controlled by mirror neurons)
  APD not without empathy but neural switch, unlike atypical brain where empathy switched permanently on

Question 10

Biological Explanations- Neural- AO3

Answer 10

• Brain evidence +
  Kandel+Freed=frontal lobe damage(planning behaviour) and antisocial behaviour
  Damage=impulsive, emotional instability and inability to learn from mistakes
• Intervening variables -
  Farrington=men scored high psychopathy- risk factors in childhood
  Early childhood experiences=APD and neural differences associated with it
  May be other variables that have impact on the complex process

Question 11

Psychological Explanations- Eysenck’s Theory- AO1

Answer 11

• Personality theory=3 dimensions- introversion-extraversion / neuroticism-stability / psychoticism-sociability
• Biological basis=type of nervous system we inherit- offenders=high NEP
  Extravert=stimulation, risk-taking
  Neurotic=high reactivity, jumpy, hard to predict
  Psychotic=high testosterone, unemotional, aggressive
• Socialisation- offenders developmentally immature, selfish, immediate gratification
• Eysenck personality questionnaire (EPQ) measured criminal personality

Question 12

Psychological Explanations- Eysenck’s Theory- AO3

Answer 12

• Research support +
  Eysenck+Eysenck=prisoners scores EPQ with controls
  NEP over all ages=prisoners higher scores than controls
  Offenders rate higher across 3 dimensions
• Too simplistic -
  Moffitt=offending behaviour in adulthood and adolescence
  Personality=poor predictor how long offending occurs
  Persistence in offending behaviour=reciprocal process between personality and environmental reactions to this
• Cultural factors -
  Bartol+Holanchock=hispanic and afrian-american offenders in max security
  6 groups based on history and nature of offences
  All groups=less extravert than control due to different cultural group than Eysenck

Question 13

Psychological Explanations- Cognitive- Level of Moral Reasoning- AO1

Answer 13

• Kohlberg- decisions based on what believe to be right/wrong
• Stages of moral reasoning:
  Level 1=pre-conventional morality
  Stage 1-punishment orientation
  Stage 2-Instrumental orientation
  Level 2=conventional morality
  Stage 3-good boy/girl orientation
  Stage 4-maintenance of social order
  Level 3=post-conventional morality
  Stage 5-morality of contract and individual rights
  Stage 6-morality of conscience
  =offenders have lower level moral reasoning than non-offenders
• Link with criminality
  Offenders more likely pre-conventional=avoid punishment and gain rewards
  Supported=offenders more egocentric, non-offenders more honest, generous and non-violent

Question 14

Psychological Explanations- Cognitive- Level of Moral Reasoning- AO3

Answer 14

• Research support +
  Palmer+Hollin=moral reasoning offenders and non-offenders using 11 moral dilemma questions
  Offender group=less mature moral reasoning- consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions
• Type of offence -
  Thornton+Reid=financial gain crimes=more pre-conventional moral reasoning than impulse crimes
  Pre-conventional=offenders believe good chance evading punishment
  Theory doesn’t apply to all crime

Question 15

Psychological Explanations- Cognitive- Cognitive Distortions- AO1

Answer 15

• Cognitive distortions=faulty, biased, irrational ways of thinking=perceive ourselves, others world inaccurately
• Hostile attribution bias=tendency judge ambiguous situations as aggressive when may not be
  Schonenberg+Justye=images ambiguous facial expressions- violent offenders perceived as hostile
  Dodge+Frame=children ambiguous provocation clip- identified as aggressive=situation more hostile
• Minimalisation=type deception downplaying significance event/emotion- strategy dealing with guilt
  Barbaree=26 rapists- 54% denied offence, 40% minimised harm caused to victim

Question 16

Psychological Explanations- Cognitive- Cognitive Distortions- AO3

Answer 16

• Real world application +
  CBT aims challenge irrational thinking- offenders encouraged face up what have done=less distorted view of actions
  Studies=reduced minimalisation=reduced risk reoffending
  Cognitive distortions have practical value
• Type of offence -
  Howitt+Sheldon=questionnaire responses sexual offenders
  Non-contact sex offenders=more distortions than contact sex offenders
  Previous offending history=use distortions as justification
  Distortions not used in same way by all offenders

Question 17

Psychological Explanations- Differential Association Theory- AO1

Answer 17

• Differential association theory=through interactions we learn values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour
• Scientific basis- Sutherland
  Conditions which cause crime present when crime present, absent when crime absent
  Discriminate between offenders and non-offenders
• Offending as learned behaviour
  Predict how likely will commit offences- frequency, intensity, duration exposure to crime
• Learning attitudes=socialised into group and learn attitudes towards law=pro-crime/anti-crime
• Learning techniques=learned techniques committing offences
• Socialisation in prison
  Inmates learn techniques from other offenders that they put into practice on release

Question 18

Psychological Explanations- Differential Association Theory- AO1

Answer 18

• Differential association theory=through interactions we learn values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour
• Scientific basis- Sutherland
  Conditions which cause crime present when crime present, absent when crime absent
  Discriminate between offenders and non-offenders
• Offending as learned behaviour
  Predict how likely will commit offences- frequency, intensity, duration exposure to crime
• Learning attitudes=socialised into group and learn attitudes towards law=pro-crime/anti-crime
• Learning techniques=learned techniques committing offences
• Socialisation in prison
  Inmates learn techniques from other offenders that they put into practice on release

Question 19

Psychological Explanations- Differential Association Theory- AO3

Answer 19

• Shift of focus +
  Away from bio. and theories blaming individual weakness/immortality
  Deviant social circumstances/environments more to blame than deviant people
  Realistic solution instead of eugenics or punishment
• Wide reach +
  Some offences clustered amongst affluent groups
  White-collar/corporate offences=feature M/C social groups who share deviant norms/values
  Not just lower classes/can be used to explain all offences
• Difficulty testing -
  Concepts are not testable as cannot be operationalised
  Theory built on assumption offending occurs when pro-crime values outnumber anti-crime
  Cannot know at what point urge to offend realised and offending career triggered
  Does not have scientific credibility

Question 20

Psychological Explanations- Psychodynamic- AO1

Answer 20

• Inadequate superego- Blackburn=offending behaviour inevitable as Id free rein and not properly controlled
• Types of superego:
  =Weak superego=same-gender parent absent in phallic stage=cannot identify and internalise superego=offending more likely
  =Deviant superego=Internalised superego deviant values=offending behaviour
  =Over-harsh superego=overly-harsh parenting style=crippled with guilt and anxiety=criminal acts to satisfy drive for punishment
• Role of emotion
  Emotional life of individual=acknowledges role of anxiety and guilt
• Theory of maternal deprivation=Bowlby=failure to establish relationship in first few years=damaging and irreversible consequences
  Affectionless psychopathy=lack of guilt, empathy and feeling for others
  44 thieves study=14/44=affectionless psychopaths
  12/14=prolonged separation during infancy

Question 21

Psychological Explanations- Psychodynamic- AO3

Answer 21

• Research support +
  Goreta=freudian-style analysis 10 offenders
  Over-harsh superego as guilt and need for self-punishment=desire to commit acts of wrongdoing
  Psychic conflicts basis for offending
• Gender bias -
  Girls=weaker superego as identification with mother not as strong
  Superego less fully realised=women more prone to offending than men
  Opposite is true- Hoffman=hardly evidence for gender differences
  Alpha bias at heart of theory and not appropriate explanation
• Other factors -
  Lewis=analysed interview data 500 young people=MDH poor predictor future offending and ability to form close relationships
  Not necessarily causal relationship
  Other reasons for link like growing up in poverty
  MDH one, but not only, reason for offending

Question 22

Dealing With Offending Behaviour- Custodial Sentencing- AO1

Answer 22

• Custodial sentencing=decision made by court punishment for crime involve time in custody- prison or institutions
• Aims of custodial sentencing
  =Deterrence=put off individual offending- general=to society- individual=to them alone
  =Incapacitation=taken out of society to protect public- depend on severity of offence and nature of offender
  =Retribution=society enacting revenge by making offender suffer- proportionate to seriousness of offence
  =Rehabilitation=reform- leave prison better adjusted to take place back in society
• Psychological effects of custodial sentencing:
  =Stress and depression=high suicide rates/mutilation/self-harm/increased risk psych. disorders
  =Institutionalisation=cannot function in real world as accustomed to norms and routines of prison life
  =Prisonisation=adopting inmate code- unacceptable behaviour in real world encouraged in prisons
• Problem of recidivism=reoffending
  Difficult to obtain real figures- rates vary with time period after release/age/crime committed/country

Question 23

Dealing With Offending Behaviour- Custodial Sentencing- AO3

Answer 23

• Psychological effects -
  Bartol=imprisonment brutal, demeaning, devastating
  119 suicide, increase 29 on previous year
  Average=1 every 3 days, 9x higher than general population
  Most risk=young single men first 24 hours
  25% women 15% men=symptoms psychosis
• Training and treatment +
  Rehabilitation=improved character so crime free life when back in society
  Access education and training=increased possibility employment
  Offenders college education programmes=43% less likely reoffend- prisons with programmes=fewer violent incidents
• School for crime -
  Undergo dubious education
  Younger inmates opportunity learn new techniques from experienced offenders
  Acquire criminal contacts may follow up when released

Question 24

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Behaviour Modification in Custody- AO1

Answer 24

• Behaviourist principles:
  Should be able to encourage unlearning of behaviour
  =reinforcing obedient behaviour, whilst punishing disobedience, in hope former continues and latter dies
• Token economy=operant conditioning:
  Prisoners given token each time desirable behaviour
  (Behaviours and rewards clear before programme implemented and non-compliance token withheld/removed)
• Designing and using a token economy:
  =operationalise target behaviours- breaking down into component parts
  Units of behaviour objective, measurable and agreed with prison staff/inmates in advance
  =scoring system- aware how much behaviours are worth
  Some demanding more than others so greater rewards
  Reinforcements outnumber punishments 4:1
  =train staff- can implement token economy system successfully- standardise procedures so rewarding same behaviour in same way
  Record when awarded tokens so progress of prisoners assessed

Question 25

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Behaviour Modification in Custody- AO3

Answer 25

• Research support +
  Hobbs+Holt=token economy young offenders three behavioural units
  Significant difference positive behaviour compared to non-token
  Field=token economy young people behaviour problems=generally effective but still number didn’t respond
  Youths placed on programme rewards more immediate and frequent=positive results
• Easy to implement +
  Appeal relies on ease with which can be administered
  No need specialist professionals as there would be in anger management
  Token economies designed and implemented by anyone in any institution
  Cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods reinforcement established
• Little rehabilitative value -
  Blackburn=any positive changes behaviour lost when released
  Cognitive based treatments more permanent behaviour change
  Understand cause and take responsibility- can easily play along with token economy to reap rewards

Question 26

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Anger Management- AO1

Answer 26

• Therapeutic programme identifying signs and triggers of anger as well as learning techniques to calm down
  =recognise anger and manage it
  =behaviourist- CBT
• Stages:
  =Cognitive preparation
  Reflect on past experiences and consider pattern of anger
  If irrational therapist makes this clear
  =Skill acquisition
  Techniques and skills deal with anger in rational and effective way
  Cognitive- positive self-talk counting to ten
  Behavioural- assertive how communicate effectively
  Physiological- meditation
  =Application practice
  Practice skills in carefully controlled environment
  Commitment from offender, bravery from therapist- positive reinforcement
• Positive outcome young offenders:
  Keen=17-21 national anger management package- 8, 2hour sessions
  Offenders not taking seriously and forgetting routines=final outcomes positive- increased awareness difficulties and increased capacity control

Question 27

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Anger Management- AO3

Answer 27

• Better than behaviour modification +
  Tackles causes of offending- cognitive processes
  Alternative treatments only deal with surface behaviour
  New insight into cause of criminality and self-discovery of how to manage outside prison setting
  More likely permanent change
• Individual differences -
  Howells=Australian offenders
  Anger management little overall impact compared control group
  Not true for all offenders
  Intense levels of anger/open to change and highly motivated=significant progress
• Expensive -
  Highly trained specialists
  May not have resources to fund such programmes
  Success based on commitment of participants
  Change takes time which adds to expense of programmes

Question 28

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Restorative Justice- AO1

Answer 28

=rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims- see impact of crime and empowers survivors in recovery

• Key features:
  =trained mediator
  =neutral ground
  =survivor explain how affected them and ask compensation
  =offender actively involved regarding positive outcomes
  =can work with indirect victims as well
• Sentencing and restitution:
  =can act as occurring pre-trial or alongside sentence/alternative
  =restitution- monetary payment by offender to survivor
• Restorative justice council:
  =establish clear standards and support survivors/specialists
  =can prevent and manage conflict in many areas

Question 29

Dealing with Offending Behaviour- Restorative Justice- AO3

Answer 29

• Needs of the survivor +
  Restorative justice council longitudinal study:
  =85% satisfaction with process
  =78% recommend
  =60% made them feel better
  =2% made feel worse
• Recidivism +
  Strang=meta-analysis- restorative justice schemes and custodial sentencing
  Restorative justice=less likely reoffend
  Bain=lowered recidivism with adult offenders especially when 1-1
• Abusing the system -
  Gijseghem=offenders use restorative justice to: avoid punishment / play down their faults / take pride in their actions