Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is introspection?
A
The method of looking into one’s mind.
2
Q
Who used introspection?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
3
Q
Problems with introspection:
A
- The reports may be distorted deliberately you may pretend to have more positive thoughts (socially desirable responses).
- There will be a delay between the conscious experience and reporting the existence, we may forget parts of it.
- Subject reports from introspection cannot be replicated, therefore not reliable.
4
Q
What is validity?
A
How truthful something is.
5
Q
What is social desirability?
A
Participants give responses to put them in a good light.
6
Q
How does social desirability effect validity?
A
It reduces validity (truth) of findings.
7
Q
The features of science:
A
Falsifiability
Hypothesis testing
Paradigm shift
Objectivity
Theory construction
Empirical methods
Replicability
8
Q
Falsifiability meaning
A
When you can show something to be wrong
9
Q
What is hypothesis testing?
A
A testable meaning - the variables are explicit.
10
Q
What is a paradigm shift?
A
A shared set of assumptions.
11
Q
What is objectivity?
A
Based on information.
12
Q
What is theory construction?
A
An idea that you have on why something happens.
13
Q
What are empirical methods?
A
Knowledge gained through experimental/observable methods.
14
Q
What is meant by replicability?
A
Something can be repeated.
15
Q
What is a case study?
A
Carried usually on 1 individual because they are completely unique and will be of huge importance to psychology.
16
Q
Weaknesses of case study’s:
A
- Not generalisable
- Not representative
- Difficult to replicate
17
Q
Features of a structured interview:
A
- Quantitative data
- Closed questions
18
Q
Features of an unstructured interview:
A
- Spontaneous
- Conversational tone
- Open questions - qualitative
19
Q
Qualitative data:
A
- Non numerical
- Difficult to analyse
- Hard to present in quality data (charts/graphs)
20
Q
Quantitative data
A
Data that gives numerical results - easily to statistically analyse and present.
21
Q
What is an Aim?
A
What you want to research/investigate to a
22
Q
Hypothesis
A
A testable statement with operationalised variables.
23
Q
What is a one tailed hypothesis also known as?
A
Directional
24
Q
When would you use a one tailed hypothesis?
A
- You say which way the results are going to go.
- Used with previous research
25
Examples of a one tailed hypothesis:
Participants in Escitalopram (treatment for OCD) group have a lower % of OCD symptoms after 24 weeks compared to participants in the placebo group.
Escitalopram group - Independent Variable (IV)
% of OCD symptoms after 24 weeks - Dependent Variable (DV)
26
What does a fully operationalised hypothesis have to include?
The IV and DV (both operationalised)
27
What is a two tailed hypothesis also known as?
Non directional
28
When would you used a two tailed hypothesis?
- When you predict there will be a difference.
- Used with no previous evidence/research
- You always start the hypothesis with: THERE WILL BE A DIFFERENCE
29
What are bar charts used for?
Independent or discrete data.
30
What is a histogram used for?
Continuous data
31
What is correlational analysis?
Research method looking for a relationship between 2 variables.
32
Disadvantages of correlational analysis?
- Does not establish cause and effect
33
What is a scatter graph used for?
Only used in correlation
34
What is independent variables?
The variable that you manipulate
35
What is the dependant variable?
The variable you measure
36
What is meant by the term operationalised?
When you clearly define your variables,
37
What is random allocation?
To avoid any potential bias so that participants have an equal opportunity of being in a group.
38
What is temporal validity?
Does something stand the test of time.
39
The British Psychological Society Code of Ethics:
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Right to withdraw
- Confidentiality
- Protection from harm
40
Informed consent?
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate. Aims, procedures, ethics and the person has to physically sign a consent form.
41
Deception?
A participant is not told the true aim of the study (what participants will involve) and thus can’ give truly informed consent.
42
Right to withdraw
Participant can stop participating if they feel uncomfortable in any way, especially when it was not possible to give fully informed consent.
43
Confidentiality
Concerns the communication if personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected.
44
Protected from harm
Participants should not experience negative effects.
45
Why can a debrief be used as a method of dealing with all other issues?
Than the participants, offer support if appropriate, debrief if study, give details so they can contact you if they have any questions.
46
What are independent groups?
Participants take part in only one condition (Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment - Social Learning Theory)
47
Advantages of independent groups:
- No order effects
48
Disadvantages of independent groups:
- Participant variables/ individual effects
49
What are repeated measures?
Take part in both experimental methods
50
Advantage of repeated measures:
- Participants variables
- Bo individual differences
51
Weaknesses of repeated measures:
- Order effects
52
What are order effects?
Occur when the 2nd condition/stimulus is impacted by the 1st one - Rat Man by Bugelsky and Alampay 1962
53
Nature and use of a laboratory experiment?
Experiment under controlled experimental conditions.
54
What are demand characteristics?
- What people may show in a lab type experiment
- Participants try to find out the aim of the experiment
55
Weakness of demand characteristics
Can reduce validity
56
What is a double blind?
When the participants and investigator don’t know if you’re getting the drug or the placebo.
57
Why is a double blind used?
Worried about investigator effects
58
What is a single blind?
Only the participants doesn’t know what they’re taking (placebo or drug)
59
What are behavioural categories?
A table of pre determined/operationalised behaviours
60
What it is the mean?
The average score
61
How is the mean calculated?
Add all the values and divide by how many there are
62
Disadvantages of using the mean
Vulnerable to anomaly’s
63
What data is used for the mean?
Interval data
64
What is the mode?
The most frequent score/result
65
What type of data is used in the mode?
Nominal data
66
How is the median calculated?
You sort the results in numerical order and then find the middle value.
67
What type of data is used for the median?
Ordinal data
68
What is primary data?
1st hand data
69
What is secondary data?
Using someone else’s data
70
What is meta analysis?
Combination of study’s
71
Use of questionnaires
Affective way of measuring behaviour and thoughts as it comes for the client/patient.
72
Advantage of questionnaire
Time efficient compared to interviews
73
Disadvantages of questionnaire
Use of socially desirable responses
74
Weaknesses of case study’s:
- Not generalisable
- Not representative
- Difficult to replicate
75
What is random sampling?
Everybody has an equal chance of being in one of the two conditions
76
What is volunteer sampling?
You advertise in an approximate place to get people you want.
77
What is opportunity sampling?
You ask available people at the time if they want to partake
78
What is interval data?
Fixed unit of measurement (time in s, temperature in C, height in m)
79
What is nominal data?
Data that is in the form of category’s
80
What is ordinal data
Data that can be put into order
81
What is controlled observation?
A research method where researchers watch participants in a contained environment.
82
Example of a controlled observation:
Bobo doll experiment - Bandura
83
What is a naturalistic observation?
A qualitative research methods were you record the behaviours of your research subject in the real world settings. You avoid interfering with or influencing any variables in the naturalistic observation.
84
What is an overt observation?
The participants are aware of the fact that they’re being observed.
85
What is a covert observation?
Where the researcher is ‘undercover’; the participants are unaware that they are being observed.
86
 What is participant observation?
The process of entering a group of people with a shared identity to gain understanding of the community.
87
What is non participant observation?
Observing participants without actively participating.
88
What does ‘inter rater’ reliability?
Refers to the extent to which two or more individuals agree.
89
Advantages of a filed experiment
- Has ecological validity.
- No demand characteristics as they’re in their natural environment
90
What is experimental design?
Ways in which participants are organised into different conditions.
91
Advantages of a laboratory experiment:
- High in internal validity
- Replicable
92
Disadvantages of a laboratory experiment
- Participants are aware they’re being monitored (ecological validity)
- IV or DV may be operationalised
93
What is a confederate?
An individual in a study, who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by investigator.
94
Advantage of natural experiment
- High in ecological validity
-
95
Disadvantages of natural experiments
- Can’t control extraneous variables
96
Example of a natural experiment
Hadley and Hitch (1977) - rugby players and memory
97
Advantages of random sampiling
- Unbiased - all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection.
98
Weakness of random sampling?
Need to have a list of all members of the population, and then contact all of them.
99
Disadvantage of volunteer sampling
Volunteer buyers
100
Advantage of volunteer sampling
Gives access to a variety of Participants, so more representative and less biased.
101
Advantages of opportunity sampling
Easiest method as you use the first suitable participant, you can find so less time to locate your sample.
102
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
Biased as this sample is drawn from a small part of the population
103
What is systematic sampling?
When you use a predetermined system to select participants such as selecting every nth person. The numerical interval is applied constantly.
104
Advantages of systematic sampling
Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system.
105
What is stratified sampling?
Subgroups (strate) within the population are identified, participants are obtained from each of the strata, in proportion to the occurrence in the population selection is random.
106
Advantages of stratified sampling
Likely to be more representative
107
Weaknesses of stratified sampling
Time consuming to identify subgroups, then randomly, selecting and contacting participants.
108
What is meant by nominal data?
- Data that is in the form of categories with frequencies (ice cream flavour: vanilla, chocolate etc.)
- It’s the most basic level
109
Strengths of scatter/correlation graphs:
- Can generate further research to see if the phenomenon occurs.
- You can see if there’s a relationship between two variables, where it’s not possible to conduct an experiment due to ethical issues.
110
What is a confounding variable?
A variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV.
111
Ecological validity:
The place where the research was conducted - how generalisable is it to the real world.
112
Field experiment:
The IV is manipulated, can’t control extraneous variables.
113
Quasi experiment:
When the IV is naturally occurring, you can’t manipulate it.
114
What is content analysis:
Turning qualitative data into quantitative data.
115
Ordinal data
- Data that can be put in a rank - test scores, height
- Median + range
116
How to do content analysis:
- Researchers first need to establish their aims and hypothesis and familiarise themselves with data so that a suitable coding system can be developed.
- Once suitable codes have been identified, the researcher can then systematically re-analyse the data to identify examples of each code which could then be tallied (behavioural categories have to be operationalised).
117
Strengths of content analysis
- The information at the beginning is qualitative data so it’s rich with information.
- Offers a method to analyse a variety of forms of media.
- The material is public; no issue with consent.
118
Limitations of content analysis:
- The identification of suitable themes is subjective and decided by the researcher alone, meaning that conclusions lack any objectivity.
- This means that the material can be misinterpreted.
119
What is thematic analysis:
- An alternate to CA.
- TA is essentially a method for identifying and analysing patterns in qualitative data
- Once the researcher gathers data, they would carefully study the data multiple times in order to
spot emerging patterns, themes, sub-themes, etc.
- The themes identified are re-analysed so that they become more refined and relevant and given short hand codes. The researcher can then annotate the transcript with the codes that have been identified.
- This can be an extremely time consuming job as the researcher usually has to study and go through the data many times before finalising the principal themes and the sub-themes of the research.
- We call this process ‘immersion.’
- The themes identified can be used to support or challenge existing theories, with specific examples of data or quotes being used as supporting evidence.
120
Difference between content analysis and thematic analysis:
- Studying people indirectly through communications e.g. emails, lyrics of songs, diary entries, to produce QUANTITATIVE DATA.
- The first stage is to use coding. Come up with categories you are looking for. Count or tally up every time certain words are used e.g. analysing newspaper reports for the derogatory terms they use around mental illness, so count every time they use words such as ‘crazy’ or ‘mad’.
- Thematic analysis is to analyse communications to see what themes keep on ‘cropping up’. This produces QUALITATIVE DATA.
- E.G the mentally ill may be represented as ‘a drain on NHS’, and the categories are then developed into broader themes such as ‘stereotyping’.
- No pre-determined categories
121
Limitations to thematic analysis:
- Subjective (qualitative data) which effects validity.
122
How to assess reliability of content analysis - inter rater reliability:
• Use a second researcher
• They read the interviews/listen to recordings separately and
devise behavioural categories
• Tally the occurrences of each category
• Compare tallies
• Look for a correlation between the two
• Accept a correlation of +0.8 or above (correlation coefficient).
123
How to assess reliability of content analysis - Test, retest:
• Repeat content analysis on a different occasion using same data
• Compare results of the two
• Calculate a correlation between the two
• Accept the correlation of 0.8 (accept between 0.7-0.9) between test and retest.
