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I&D Flashcards

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1
Q

Gender bias:

A

Different treatment/representations of males and females based on stereotypes.

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2
Q

Universality:

A
  • Believing some behaviours are the same for everyone, no differences in different cultures.
  • Psychology attempts to be ‘objective’ and ‘value free’ , however, psychologists possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical contexts they live in.
  • This may influence their research, findings and conclusions eg: because they gather p’s from a particular culture/gender etc.
  • Can be fixed through diversity.
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3
Q

Androcentrism:

A
  • Theories that are of used on males.
  • Eg: most conformity studies
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4
Q

Alpha bias:

A
  • Theories that exaggerate differences between males and females/ overemphasises differences.
  • Eg: Freud
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5
Q

Beta bias:

A

Theories that minimise differences between males and females.

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6
Q

Culture bias:

A

When you judge people in terms of your own cultural assumptions.

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7
Q

Ethnocentrism:

A
  • Seeing the world from your own cultural perspective, emphasising the behaviour of one’s own culture.
  • Ainsworth and Strange Situation, attachement
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8
Q

Cultural relativism:

A

Behaviour can only be understood if the cultural context is taken into consideration.

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9
Q

The Chitling Test (1968):

A
  • Designed to demonstrate differences in understanding and culture between races, specifically between African American and Whites.
  • In determining how smart streetwise someone is, the Chitling Test may have validity, but there have been no studies demonstrating this.
  • Face validity, but no evidence of predictive validity.
  • A demonstration of his cultural content on intelligence tests may lead to culturally blissed score results.
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10
Q

Emic approach:

A

Use indigenous researchers in different cultural relationships/settings.

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11
Q

Reducing cultural bias:

A
  • Don’t extrapolate findings/theories to cultures that aren’t represented in the research sample.
  • Use researchers who are native to the culture being investigated.
  • Carry out cross cultural research rather than research with a sole culture.
  • Don’t assume universal norms across different cultures.
  • Be sensitive to cultural norms when doing research.
  • Emic approach
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12
Q

Alpha based theories:

A
  • Freud: electra + Oedipus complex
    • men more moral than women
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13
Q

Beta based theories:

A
  • ForF
    • women: tend and befriend, react more softly to stress compared to men.
  • Milgram
    Johanson et al - sawmill men in Sweden
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14
Q

Nature:

A

The view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors.

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15
Q

Nurture:

A

Behaviour is the product of environmental influences.

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16
Q

Heredity:

A

Genetic inheritance is the process in w hi traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

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17
Q

Interactionist approach:

A

The view that both nature and nurture work together.

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18
Q

Nature examples:

A
  • Lorenz goslings: imprinting attachment Bowlby’s theory.
  • Bouchard’s twins studies: IQ similarities, biological influence of IQ.
  • Relationships: natural/sexuel selection.
  • OCD: neural and genetic, Nestadt
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19
Q

Nurture examples:

A
  • Bowlby MDH: later in life
  • Behaviourism: Pavlov’s dog, CC - phobias and Little Albert
  • SLT: Bandura’s Bobo doll
  • Conformity, majority influence
  • Adult romantic relationships
  • Learning Henry of attachment
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20
Q

Idiographic:

A

Studying individual cases.

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21
Q

Nomathetic approach:

A

Understanding behaviour though developing general laws that apply to everyone.

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22
Q

Idiographic examples:

A
  • Little Albert: behaviourist
  • Clive Wearing, HM, KF - cognitive
  • Little Hans: psychodynamic
  • Humanistic approach: no universal laws of behaviour
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23
Q

Nomathetic approach:

A
  • Biological approach
  • Behaviourist
  • Cognitive
  • SLT: Bandura
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24
Q

Idiographic overview:

A
  • Rejects scientific method
  • Should study the individual and not groups
  • Behaviour must be understood in terms of subjective experience
  • A detached observers explanation in worthless
  • Qualitative data
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25
Q

Idiographic approach, humanistic approach:

A
  • Argue that objective reality is less important a person’s subjective perception and understanding the world.
  • The personality is studied from the point of view the individual’s subject experience.
  • For Rogers the focus of psychology is not behaviour (Skinner), the unconscious (Freud), thinking (Wundt), or the human brain but how individuals perceive and interpret events.
  • Roger is therefore important because he redirected psychology towards the study of the self.
26
Q

Idiographic approach, psychodynamic approach:

A
  • Idiogrpahic approach when explaining behaviour, using case studies to support the theories.
  • They typically pinpoint factors relating to the development of the personality, the Id, the Ego and the Superego or psychosexual stages of development including the use of defence mechanisms.
  • The case study of Hans also starts out as an idiographic approach for explains the Oedipus complex.
27
Q

Idiographic approach, evaluation:

A
  • Can’t généralise to wider population due to the use of case studies.
  • Methods are subjective, flexible and unstanderised so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is difficult.
  • Gain detailed and informative descriptions of behaviour.
  • Can uncover causes for behaviour not identified using nomathetic methods.
  • Develops a holistic understanding of individual
  • Can provide hypotheses for the future scientific study.
  • Some idiogrpahic approaches, do use an evidence based approach and seek to be objective and attempts are made to ensure validity.
  • Reflexivity in interviews: the researcher reflects critically during the respect process about factors that might affect the researcher and the participants.
28
Q

Nomothetic approach overview:

A
  • Tries to identify similarities between people and laws governing behaviour, by studying large groups in order to generalise.
  • Uses scientific methods and qualitative data.
  • Group averages are statistically analysed and predictions are made.
  • A nomothetic approach involved studying (large) sample.
  • Use the findings to generate general laws of behaviour.
  • Makes inferences about the wider population.
29
Q

Nomothetic approach, methods of investigation:

A
  • Experiments
  • Correlational research
  • Psychometric testing
30
Q

Nomothetic approach, biological approach:

A
  • Nomothetic approach when explaining psychological disorders.
  • They typically pinpoint biological factors, such as neurotransmitters that are responsible for such disorders and use biological therapies to treat all patients.
31
Q

Nomothetic approach, behaviourist approach:

A
  • Pavlov + Skinner conducted experiment with animals in order to establish laws of learning (CC or OC) that could be generalised to humans and non human animals.
32
Q

Nomothetic approach, cognitive approach:

A
  • Atkinson and Shiffrin, developed general laws, such as MSM of memory, which they believed could be generalised to all.
33
Q

Nomothetic approach, evaluation:

A
  • Can generalise to wider populations when suitable sample are used and are representative.
  • Methods are objective, measurable and can be verified so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is easy.
  • Generalised laws and and principles may not apply to an individual.
  • Understanding is often superficial.
34
Q

Determinism:

A
  • Traits and behaviours are outside our control; an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces.
  • This means that our behaviour should be predictable.
35
Q

Determinism, psychic determinism:

A
  • Suggests that adult behaviour are caused by childhood experiences: so no free will.
  • Specific links between behaviours and psychosexual conflicts e.g: addictions related to oral fixation; tidying to anal retentive mess (OCD).
36
Q

Determinism, biological determinism:

A
  • Internal forces i.e: hormones, genes, NT, NS, physiology of brain.
  • We cannot override our biology.
37
Q

Determinism, environmental determinism:

A
  • Traits are governed by external factors such as experiences, up bringing, learning, schools, peers, parents etc.
  • Differential association theory of offending behaviours.
  • Sutherland blamed associations with other criminals/like minded people.
  • Said offending people/behaviour was learned through the environment.
  • Behaviourism and SLT: aggression (Bandura), we’re all born with our mind as a blank slate
  • Authoritarian personality: strict parents/upbringing
  • Phobias
38
Q

Scientific emphasis on causal explanation - Determinism in science:

A
  • A causal explanation is based on the scientific notion that behaviour is determined by internal or external factors: there is a cause and error relationship.
  • Causality/ causation = the IV has an effect on the DV.
  • One of the basic principle of science is this principle of causality that every event has a cause and every cause has an effect.
  • Loftus and Palmer: manipulated the verb (IV), to measure the effect on the pp’s estimate of the speed (DV).
39
Q

Hard determinism:

A
  • Biological - behaviourist
  • Our lives are governed by forces that out of control
  • Assumes both internal and external forces determine our behaviour
  • Biological determinism is an example of hard determinism
  • Environmental determinism is a type of hard determinism
  • A type of hard determinism e.g: biological explanations of OCD
  • Environmental determinism is a type of hard determinism e.g: behavioural explanations of phobias.
40
Q

Soft determinism:

A
  • Behaviour are to an extent dictated by internal/external factors
  • SLT is an example
  • Psychic determinism as it believed the mind determines behaviour but also influenced by experiences
  • Cognitive: can only remember info that we’ve payed attention to.
41
Q

Free will:

A
  • Believes that human beings are self determining ie: they’re in control of their lives.
  • Free to choose:
    • how we think
    • how we behave
    • what we want out of life
  • Doesn’t mean we’re not also influenced by biology, culture, environmental etc., but we can reject these things and choose alternatives if we so wish.
42
Q

Free will, humanistic psychology:

A
  • Humanistic psychologists claim that humans have free will.
  • They argue that people have a choice over their behaviour, and they denied that people’s behaviour is at the mercy of outside forces.
  • Self determination is a necessary part of human behaviour.
  • Without self determination, self actualisation isn’t possible.
  • Humanistic psychologists argue that regarding human behaviour as determined by external forces is dehumanising and incorrect.
  • When people regard their behaviour as being determined by forces beyond their control, they will not take responsibility for, and therefore be able to change their behaviour.
43
Q

For free will:

A
  • Robert et al (2000) demonstrated that adolescents with a strong sense of ‘fatalism’ were more likely to suffer from depression than those who don’t have this out look.
  • What this means, is that, even if we don’t actually have free will, the belief that we can have a positive impact on our behaviour and well being.
44
Q

Against free will:

A
  • Soon et al demonstrated brain activity indicated an action predated our conscious knowledge of having made the choice.
  • The researchers found that the activity related to where participants pushed a button with their left or right hand occurred in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants reported being consciously aware of making the decision.
45
Q

Reductionism:

A

Breaking someone down into their constituent parts (components of a person) to study a person internally that could influence behaviour.

46
Q

Biological reductionism:

A
  • OCD explanations (NT/ genes/ physiology of brain) each took a reductionist approach, with only considering one part and disregarding the rest as explanations.
  • Has validity and objectivity (features of science) as people have been used as research.
  • Has advantages with treatment (drugs or surgery).
  • On the flip side it may miss out on other important factors: there could be a combination of more than one. Also ethical approach for treating mental disorders.
  • One disadvantage is that there must be other factors due to the concordance rate of MZ twins never being 100% and so showing that biological reductionism is not the only answer. Treats the symptoms, not the cause.
47
Q

Environmental reductionism:

A
  • Comes from behaviourism SLT
  • The premise is there’s a stimulus - response.
  • Reducing behaviour to a stimulus.
  • Phobias are initiated through CC and maintains through OC - nothing to do with our biology.
  • Little Albert shows this through him developing a fear/phobia of rats.
  • Scientific - under controlled circumstances.
  • Treatment - flooding and systematic desensitisation.
48
Q

Levels of explanation (1):

A
  • Different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology.
  • Explanations vary from those at a lower/ fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher, more holistic multi variable level.
49
Q

Levels of explanation (2):

A

Highest level: Cultural and social explanations of how our social groups effect our behaviour
|
Psychological explanations of behaviour (cognitive + SLT)
|
Lowest level: Biological explanation (underpins our behaviour)

50
Q

Holistic:

A

Looks at everything

51
Q

Holism, humanistic psychology:

A
  • Individual acts as a whole person and not in components.
  • Unified sense of identity is important.
  • Lack of ‘wholeness’ leads to mental disorders.
  • Emphasis on ‘free will’ and self actualisation.
52
Q

Ethical guidelines:

A

Principles set out by BPS to help psychologists behave honestly and with integrity.

53
Q

Ethical issues:

A

Issues that arise when there is conflict between the rights of the participant and aid of the researcher(s).

54
Q

Ethical implications:

A

The impact or consequences that research has on the right of other people in the wider context, not just the participants in the research.

55
Q

Socially sensitive research meaning:

A

Any research that might have direst social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent eg: leading to discrimination and prejudice.

56
Q

Socially sensitive research overview:

A
  • Some areas of study in psychology are likely to be more controversial than others.
  • Socially sensitive research often confronts taboo topics, such as aspects of race, sexuality. They attract a lot of attention from other psychologists and from the media and general public.
  • However, just because research is socially sensitive doesn’t mean it should be conducted. Aronson, 1999, states psychologists have a ‘social responsibility’ to conduct socially sensitive research.
57
Q

Research question:

A

Consider research question carefully.

58
Q

Methodoloy used:

A

Treatment of participants and the right to confidentiality and anonymity.

59
Q

Institutional context:

A

Researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who’s funding the research.

60
Q

Interpretation and application of findings:

A

Consider how their finding might be interpreted and applied in the real world.

Psychology (12 decks)

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