Research Methods Flashcards
Random sampling
Random sampling involves selecting members of the target population in a random way. This can be done using a computerised random number generator, or even by simply drawing names out of a hat.
Advantages of Random Sampling
1) every member of the target population has an equal chance of selection
2) there is no experimenter bias in who takes part.
Disadvantages of Random Sampling
even a random sample may not truly represent the target population (e.g. a random sample of 12 people may by chance all be the same gender).
opportunity sampling
An opportunity sample is one that happens to already exist somewhere. An example could be year 12 students studying psychology as a ready-made group of these will exist in most sixth forms. Another example might be children already at a day care centre.
Advantages of opportunity Sampling
The main advantage of opportunity sampling are that it is quick and easy as the sample already exists.
Disadvantages of opportunity Sampling
opportunity sample is biased because the members of it have self selected and are all similar in at least one way, therefore any results will only be truly generalisable to that specific group of people.
Volunteer sampling
Volunteer samples are ones in which the participants have put themselves forward as research candidates. Researchers obtain volunteer samples by advertising on posters or in newspapers.
Advantages of volunteer sampling
participants will all be happy and willing to participate, and they will not feel coerced in any way.
Disadvantages of volunteer sampling
it will be biased towards a certain type of person as only people with a personal interest in the research topic will volunteer. The sample will not therefore be truly representative of the target population.
Theory
An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events.
Hypothesis
A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events.
What are 2 purposes of hypothesis
1) They allow us to test a theory
2) They give direction to research, send investigators to look for things that they never thought of.
Aspects that make a theory good
1) Effectively summarizes many observations
2) make clear predictions that we can use to:
- confirm or modify the theory
- generate new exploration
- suggest practical applications
Field research
research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory
Correlational study
The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables
Experimental research
Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).
Laboratory research
Controlled situation
Time-lagged correlations
Correlations able to reveal the sequence of events suggesting cause-effect relationships.
Mention 4 potentially biasing influences when designing and using surveys
1) unrepresentative sample
2) order of questions
3) response options
4) wording of questions
Define “framing”
the way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people’s decisions and expressed opinions
Independent variable
The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.
dependent variable
The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.
random assignment
The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.
What is the difference between random assignment and random sampling?
1) Random assignment occurs in experiments while random sampling occurs in surveys.
2) Random assignment helps us infer cause and effect while random sampling helps us generalize to a population.
Mundane realism
laboratory experiments that represent everyday situations, typically mundane or unimportant.
Experimental realism
laboratory experiments experiments that engage the participants so that real psychological processes can take place.
Deception
In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study’s methods and purposes.
Demand characteristics
Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected
Name two ways in which experimenters can minimize demand characteristics
1) Standardize instructions
2) Use a computer to provide instructions
Informed consent
An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
List 5 ethical principles used for ethical psychological research
1) Informed consent
2) Be truthful. Use deception only if essential and justified by a significant purpose and not about aspects that would affect the participants’ willingness to participate
3) Protect participants (and bystanders, if any) from harm and significant discomfort
4) Treat information about the individual participants confidentially
5) Debrief
Debrief
Fully explain the experiment afterward, including any deception. Often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings.
What is the only exception for debriefing
When the feedback would be distressing, such as by making participants they have been stupid or cruel.
Mention 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using correlational studies
ADVANTAGE: Often uses real-world settings
DISADVANTAGE: Causation often ambiguous.
Mention 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using experimental methods
ADVANTAGE: Can explore cause and effect by controlling variables and by random assignment
DISADVANTAGE: Some important variables cannot be studied with experiments
What does it mean to say “ the difference was statistically significant”?
A difference this great, for this sample of people, is very unlikely to be due to chance variation
