Personality Psychology Flashcards
Personality psychology
is the study of why people act the way they do and why different people act differently.
William Sheldon
Created an early theory of personality. Defined physical/biological variables that related to human behaviors. Characterized people by body type, relating body type (somatotypes) to personality type.
endomorphy
body type that is soft, short and spherical -> pleasure seeking, social behavior
mesomorphy
body type that is hard, muscular, athletic and rectangular -> energetic, aggressive behavior
ectomorphy
body type thin, fragile and lightly muscled -> inhibited, intellectual behavior
list the 3 body types according to William Sheldon
- Endomorphy
- Mesomorphy
- Ectomorphy
How was abnormal behavior seen before renaissance?
It was seen as evidence of demonic possession or even witchcraft.
E.G. Boring
Suggested that the development of psychology is due not primarily to the efforts o great people, but to the Zeitgeist or the changing spirit of the times.
Edward Titchener
created the method of introspection and structuralism with it. It was the first major system if psychology
Mention the major systems of psychology (7)
1) Structuralism
2) Functionalism
3) Behaviorism
4) Gestalt psychology
5) Cognitive psychology
6) Psychoanalysis
7) Humanism
Which was the first comprehensive theory on personality and abnormal psychology
Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality. He pioneered the psychoanalytic system of thought.
When did humanism develop?
Mid 20th century. In opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Believes in the notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses (behaviorism) or instincts (psychoanalysis)
describe the conditions of early asylums for mentally ill (5)
1) Patients were treated like animals
2) Cells were dark with no provisions of heat for the winter
3) Hands and feet were chained
4) Patients slept on straw rather than in beds.
5) Patients were shackled to the wall forced to sit on their own filth
Philippe Pinel
Paris
Believed that people in asylums should be treated with consideration and kindness. Removed shackles, put beds, and treated them humanely. This change spread to other asylums.
Dorothea Lynde Dix
She was a zealous advocate of treating hospitalized mentally ill with humanity. One of the founders of the American Movement to provide better care for the mentally ill.
Etiology
cause
General paresis (4)
disorder characterized by:
1) delusions of grandeur
2) mental deterioration
3) eventual paralysis
4) death
What causes general paresis and why it is important?
It is due brain deterioration caused by syphilis (untreatable until 1909). The mental disorder was caused by organic brain pathology ->mental disorders could be caused by physiological causes and not necessarily by demons.
Cerletti and Bini
Introduced the use of the electroshock for the artificial production of convulsive seizures in psychiatric patients. Convulsions were so violent that they could cause fractures.
What did Cerletti and Bini thought about electroshock?
they thought epileptic-like convulsions could cure schizophrenia. (they were wrong)
Prefrontal lobotomies
The frontal lobes of the brain were severed from the brain tissue in order to treat schizophrenia. Tens of thousands of patients were subjected to it. This procedure didn’t cure schizophrenia, it made patients more calm and without feelings at the same time that it withdrew form patients the lob responsible for most human traits.
What was the effect of introducing antipsychotic drugs in mental hospitals? (3)
1) Many patients were completely released from mental hospitals
2) Electroshock were not performed
3) Lobotomies were not performed
Emil Kraepelin
Described and classified mental disorders by seeing patterns of symptoms. Precursor of DSM-IV
What are the types of theories of personality? (4)
1) psychodynamic (psychoanalitic)
2) behaviorist
3) phenomenological
4) type and trait
Psychoanalytic theory of personality overview
1) postulates the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
2) involved 3 major systems
What are the 3 major systems that psychoanalysis involves?
1) id
2) ego
3) superego
Describe the id (3)
1) Reservoir of all psychic energy and consists of everything psychological that’s present at birth.
2) Functions according to the pleasure principle
3) Uses primary process and wish fulfillment
What is the aim of the pleasure principle?
To immediately discharge any energy build-up - relieve tension
Primary process
id’s response to frustration operating under the dictum of “obtain satisfaction now, not later”.
Example: when you feel hungry - the primary process brings up a memory of food to alleviate the frustration experienced -> wish fulfillment
Wish fulfillment
mental image of the object
reality principle
objetive reality guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle.
Its aim is to postpone the pleasure principle until the actual object that satisfy the need has been discovered or produced. While the ego’s functioning suspends the workings of the primary process, it does so only in the service of the id to pragmatically meet the demands of objective reality.
What is the result of the processes of give and take of the ego and secondary process with reality?
Promotes the growth and elaboration of:
1) perception
2) memory
3) problem solving
4) thinking
5) reality testing
Ego
can be understood to be the organization of the id. It receives it s power from the id and can never be independent of it.
Superego
strives for the ideal rather than the real. It represents the moral branch of personality and strives for perfection. Has two subsystems.
What are the two subsystems of the superego?
1) conscience
2) ego-ideal
Conscience
whatever the child caregivers say is improper and the child is punished for is the conscience
Ego-ideal
whatever the child’s caregivers approve of or reward tends to be incorporated in the ego-ideal
What happens with the conscience and ego ideal when the person grows?
The system of right or wrong is substituted for the the parental punishment-reward system.
Instinct
innate psychological representation (wish) or a bodily (biological) excitation (need). There are 2 types: life and death instincts (eros and thanatos)
Eros
life instincts, serve the purpose of individual survival (hunger, thirst and sex) The form of energy by which they perform their work is called libido.
Libido
The form of energy by which life instincts perform their work
Thanatos
death instincts - represent an unconscious wish for the ultimate absolute state of quiescence.
Defense mechanisms
ego’s resource to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety.
What are the 2 characteristics of all defense mechanisms
1) the deny, falsify or distort reality
2) they operate unconsciously
List the 8 main defense mechanisms
1) repression
2) suppression
3) projection
4) reaction formation
5) rationalization
6) sublimation
7) displacement
Repression
unconscious forgetting of anxiety-producing memories
Suppression
is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting
Projection
when a person attributes his forbidden urges to others. For instance, the thought “I hate my uncle” may cause too much anxiety so the person thinks “my uncle hates me”.
Reaction formation
a repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite.
Rationalization
developing socially acceptable explanations for inappropriate behavior or thoughts.
Regression
A person reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to a traumatic event.
Sublimation
transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors.
Displacement
pent-up feelings (often hostility) are discharged on objects or people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings. Example: problems at work, provoking arguments at home with one’s wife.
Carl Jung perspective on libido
Is a psychic energy in general, not just rooted in sexuality)
Carl Jung’s perspective on the ego
The ego is the conscious mind
What are the 2 divisions of the unconscious according to Jung
1) personal unconscious - similar to Freud’s notion of the unconscious
2) collective unconscious
Collective unconscious
powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. It includes images that are a record of common experiences -> archetypes
Archetypes
building blocks of the collective unconscious. An archetype is a thought or image that has an emotional element.
List main Jung’s archetypes (5)
1) the persona
2) the anima
3) the animus
4) the shadow
5) the self
The persona
is a mask adopted in response to the demands of social convention. Originates from social interactions in which the assumption of a social role has served a useful purpose to humankind.
The anima
feminine. Helps us understand gender, the feminine behaviors in males.
The animus
masculine. Helps us understand the masculine behaviors in females.
The shadow
animal instincts of humans inherited from lower forms of life. Responsible for the appearance in consciousness and behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings and actions.
The self
Is the person’s thriving for unity. The point of intersection of the collective unconscious and the conscious. Symbol: Mandala -> magic circle meaning the reconciler of opposites and the promoter of harmony.
Jung’s typology of personality (3 aspects)
distinguished 2 major orientations of personality: extroversion and introversion. The 2 orientations are both present in one’s personality but generally there is a dominant one.
Jung also described 4 psychological functions. One of those functions is more differentiated than the other 3.
Systems, attitudes and functions all interact in dynamic ways to form personality.
Extroversion according to Jung
orientation towards the external, objective world.
Intraversion according to Jung
orientation towards the inner, subjective world.
Alfred Adler
focused on social imperatives of family and society on unconscious factors.
Originated the concept of inferiority complex
It is striving toward superiority that drives personality.When striving is socially oriented ((leading to endeavors that benefit all people) it enhances the personality. When striving is selfish and not socially oriented, it becomes the root of personality disturbances.
Originated the notions of creative self and style of life. Coined the term life style
Inferiority complex
individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, physical inferiorities and social disabilities.
Creative self
Alfred Adler
force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness and makes his/her own personality
Style of life
The manifestation of the creative self. A person’s unique way of achieving superiority (as opposed to inferiority)The family environment is crucial in molding the person’s style of life.
Fictional finalism
Notion that an individual is motivated more by his/her expectations of the future than by past experiences. Human goals are based on a subjective or fictional estimate of life’s values rather than objective data from the past.
What is the main difference between Freud, Jung and Adler?
Freud -> behavior is motivated by inborn instincts
Jung -> behavior is motivated by inborn archetypes
Adler -> people are motivated by striving for superiority.
Karen Horney
the neurotic personality is governed by one of ten needs than becomes a central focus. Each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable.
Examples of these neurotic needs: need for affection and approval, exploit others, self-suficiency and independence. These could be normal needs to a certain point.
What are the 4 characteristics that distinguish normal, healthy needs from neurotic needs?
1) they are disproportionate in intensity
2) they are indiscriminate in application
3) they partially disregard reality
4) they have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety
basic anxiety
Karen Horney’s primary concept
The child’s early self-perception of the self is important. A sense of helplessness as a child confuses him, makes him feel insecure and produces basic anxiety in the child. To avoid anxiety the child uses 3 strategies. A healthy person uses all 3 strategies depending on the situation. Highly threatened children use one of the strategies rigidly and exclusively and this pattern is carried over into adulthood.
What are the 3 strategies a child can use to overcome basic anxiety and attain a degree of security?
1) move toward people to obtain the good will of people who provide security
2) move against people or fight them
3) moving away or withdrawing from people.
Ego Psychology
Is a modification and extension of Freud’s theory.
Ana Freud -> usually considered the founder.
Erik Erikson -> another ego psychologist.
Ana Freud (4)
1) worked with children,
2) initiated ego psychology
3) Believed that psychoanalitic theory and therapy could profit from more direct investigation of the conscious ego and its relation to the world, the unconscious and the superego.
4) Augmented our understanding of defense mechanisms
Erik Erikson
extended psychoanalysis to psychosocial real. Extended and reworked Freud stages to cover the entire lifespan.
Object-relations theory
one of the psychodynamic theories of personality
Object-> symbolic representation of a significant part of the young child’s personality.
ORTheorists look at the creation and development of these internalized objects in young children.
List 4 object-relations theorists
1) Melanie Klein
2) D.W. Winnicott
3) Margaret Mahler
4) Otto Kernberg
Psychoanalisis as a therapy
probably the best known type of psychotherapy.
developed by Sigmund Freud
intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives and conflicts stemming from problems in psychosexual development.
Freud believed that by gaining insight into the repressed material, the energy being utilized in the repressed conflict would be freed up and made available for further development.
Hypnosis
used by Freud
used early but later dropped in favor of alternative methods.
used to free repressed thoughts from the patient’s unconscious.
Free association
used by Freud
technique in which the client says whatever comer to his or her conscious mind regardless of how personal, painful or seemingly irrelevant it may appear to be. Through free associations, the analyst and the patient reconstruct the nature of the patient’s original conflict.
Dream interpretation
used by Freud
during dream states, the defenses are relaxed and the mind is freer to express forbidden wishes and desires.
Resistance
unwillingness or inability to relate to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences, is also a major part of analysis.
Transference
Involves attributing to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient’s relations with significant others in the past.
Mention 4 examples of resistance
- Forgetting dream material
- Missing a therapy session
- Blocking associations
- Switching topics rapidly
What can the therapist do using transference?
He can help recreate the patient’s experiences so that the patient can uncover, acknowledge, and understand his relationships with others.
Countertransference
- When the therapist experiences a variety of emotions towards the patient.
- The therapist should understand this so that it doesn’t interfere with treatment
- This is one of the reasons why psychoanalysts undergo psychoanalysis themselves.
Why did some modifications of the psychoanalytic treatment occur?
1) it is expensive
2) it requires a large commitment of time
Non-freudian psychoanalytic approaches
place much more emphasis on current interpersonal relationships and life situations than on childhood experience and psychosexual development.
Behaviorist theories of personality
Tend to look first and foremost at behavior
John Dollard and Neil Miller
blended some psychoanalytic concepts in a behavioral stimulus-response reinforcement learning theory approach. Focused on conflicting motives or conflicting tendencies in the development of personality
B.F. Skinner view on personality
personality is a collection of behavior that happens to have been sufficiently reinforced to persist. “personality” is the result of behavioral development of an organism
Albert Bandura view on personality
personality is the result of learning through reinforcement and observing other people’s behavior being reinforced (vicarious reinforcement)
Vicarious reinforcement
or vicarious learning
observing other people’s behaviors being reinforced
Martin Seligman
worked on learned helplessness
Did experiments with dogs putting them on a cage with high walls and sending electroshocks through the floor. At the beginning dogs tried to jump and escape but then they didn’t jump even when the walls were changed to small walls.
Extrapolated to human depression and external locus of control. People who consistently face difficult situations which they cannot escape from learn to feel powerless
Behaviorist view on abnormal behavior
Maladjustment and abnormal behavior are learned through interactions with the environment. Individuals learn faulty coping patterns that are maintained by some kind of reinforcement. The symptoms are not manifestations of a disorder (psychoanalysis), they are the disorder.
Mention 3 kinds of problems that have been proved to be successfully resolved with behavioral therapy
1) phobias
2) impulse control problems
3) personal care maintenance for people with mental retardation and psychotic patients.
Cognitive-behavior therapy
blended cognitive and behavioral approaches
Tries to change and restructure patient’s distorted and/or irrational thoughts.
Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression
type of cognitive-behavior therapy
the client might be asked to write down negative thoughts about himself, figure out why they are unjustified, and come up with more realistic and less destructive cognitions.
Rational-emotive therapy
RET Albert Ellis
assumes that people develop irrational ways of thinking. Therefore, the therapist might challenge an irrational belief that the client has, helping him to recognize these beliefs and change them to more rational ones.
mention 2 main differences between behavioral & psychoanalytic therapy
1) For behaviorism, symptoms are the disorder while for psychoanalysis they are manifestations of a deeper problem.
2) Psychoanalysts don’t believe that symptom relief is adequate therapy since the underlying cause will be still there and new symptoms will develop to replace the old one. The aim of behaviorist therapy is to eliminate the symptoms.
Symptom substitution
When new symptoms replace old symptoms of a underlying problem.
Humanism
focus on what distinguish us from animals
Gestalt theory of personality
closely linked to both existential and humanistic theories. Has a holistic view of the self.
Field Theory (4)
1) Kurt Lewin
2) Heavily influenced by Gestalt psychology
3) Personality is dynamic, constantly changing
personality can be divided into ever-changing regions called systems.
4) Under optimal conditions, the regions are well articulated and function in an integrated fashion. When the person is under tension or anxiety, articulation between regions is generally diffused.
Abraham Maslow
humanistic theorist know for his hierarchy of needs and his views of self-actualization
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (overview 2)
1) needs are organized hierarchically ascending from basic needs to complex psychological needs.
2) People strive for the higher level needs only when their lower-level needs are met.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs list (4)
1) physiological (breathing, food)
2) safety needs (shelter)
2) Belongingness and love needs
3) esteem, cognitive and aesthetic needs
4) self-actualization
Self-actualization
the need to realize one’s fullest potential. Most people don’t reach self-actualization according to Maslow.
What are the characteristics Maslow observed on individuals he thought were self-actualized? (5)
1) nonhostile sense of humor
2) originality
3) creativity
4) spontaneity
5) a need for some privacy
Peak experiences
profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual. Self-actualized people tend to experience more peak experiences than non self-actualized people
George Kelly
used himself as a model to theorize about human nature. hypothesized the notion of the human as a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions of behavior of significant people. Constructs a schema (personal construct) of what others will do based on his knowledge, perception and relationship with other people. Personal constructs determine personality and behavior.
According to George Kelly, why is a person anxious?
the anxious person is not victim of inner conflicts, but one who has difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in his environment.
How is psychotherapy according to Kelly?
process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that help him predict troublesome events and to direct new constructs into existing constructs.
Humanist-existential therapies
emphasize the process of finding meaning in one’s life by making one’s own choices. Facilitates exploration into a client’s thoughts and feelings. Includes: empathy, understanding, affirmation and positive regard.
What is the cause of mental disorders according to the humanistic-existential point of view?
1) alienation
2) depersonalization
3) loneliness
4) lack of meaningful existence
Carl Rogers
identified himself with humanistic psychology although his personality theory is basically phenomenological.
Client centered therapy
person-centered therapy or nondirective therapy
Carl Rogers
the client is able to reflect upon his problems, make choices, take positive action, and help determine his own destiny.
One purpose is to help the client become willing and able to increase the congruence between his ideal self and what he actually is.
Unconditional positive regard
one of the conditions of the person-centered therapy
Victor Frankl
survived the Nazi concentration camps. Human search for meaning to existence. Mental illness or maladjustment comes from a life of meaningless,
Type theorists
attempt to characterize people according to specific types of personality. This theories initially dominated personality theory, then they gave way to trait theories.
trait theorists
attempt to determine fundamental dimensions of personality.
Type A/Type B theory
Type A: competitive and compulsive, tension hostility and aggressiveness
more prone to heart disease most prevalent among middle and upper class men
Type B: laid-back and relaxed
Raymond Cattel
trait theorist
used factor analysis to determine underlying factors of personality from 5000 traits sacados por G. Allport.
identified sixteen bipolar source traits -> relatively permanent reaction tendencies in individuals.
Hans Eysenck
used factor analysis
broad dimensions of personality were types that included specific traits.
Used scientific method to test Jung’s division of extroversion and introversion, after research he distinguished 2 dimensions:
extraversion-intraversion
stability-neuroticism
later he included a 3rd dimension: psychoticism
Gordon Allport
trait theorist
people act differently in diferent situations because they have a trait hierarchy.
listed 3 basic types of traits
was concerned only with conscious motives governed by the proprium or propriate function (his version of the ego)
sacó 5000 traits from the dictionary
Which are the 3 types of traits proposed by Gordon Allport?
1) cardinal
2) central
3) secondary
Cardinal traits
Gordon Allport
traits around which a person organizes his life.
Example: mother Teresa - self-sacrifice
Not everyone develops cardinal traits
Central traits
Gordon allport
Everybody develops central traits
major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer
ej. honesty
Secondary traits
Gordon Allport
everybody develops secondary traits
more personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence. While circumstances may cause a person to show conflicting secondary traits, he will always be consistent with his cardinal trait.
Functional autonomy
a given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself.
Example hunter -> initially to eat, later for itself or enjoyment even when there is enough food.
Idiographic approach to personality
focuses on individual case studies. Allport suggested this should be used. later replaced the term for morphogenic
From whom did Gordon Allport took the terms idiographic and nomothetic?
German philosopher Windelband
Nomothetic approach to personality
focuses on groups of individuals and tries to find commonalities. Later replaced the term for dimensional
David McClelland
identified a personality trait called the need for achievement.
Need for achievement characteristics
(nAch)
1) those who rate high in this trait tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments
2) avoid high risks (to avoid failing)
3) avoid low risks (to have a sense of achievement)
4) set realistic goals
5) do not continue striving towards a goal if success is unlikely
Herman Witkin
draw a relationship btw an individual’s personality and his perception of the world.
Classified people according to their degree of field-dependence
What are the 2 poles of field-dependence? mention an example
1) field-independence -> make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli
2) field dependence -> more diffused response to a perceived mass of somewhat undifferentiated stimuli.
Example: highly field-dependent influenced by others (diffuse manner, not distinguishing their own ideas from others.)
Julia Rotter
created the notion of Internal and external locus of control
Machiavellian
trait that refers to someone who is manipulative and deceitful. agree with:
“most people don’t really know what’s best for them”
“anyone who completely trust anyone else is asking for trouble”
Androgyny
the state of having simultaneously masculine and feminine qualities. People with this trait have higher self-esteem, lower anxiety and more adaptability.
Sandra Bem
studied androgyny
created the Bem Sex Role Inventory
because people can achieve high scores on measures of both masculinity and femininity in personality inventories -> masculinity and femininity should be separate dimensions
Walter Mischel
challenged the concept of stable personality traits. he largely believes that human behavior depends on the characteristics of the situation rather than those of the person.
What is phrenology and what was it used for?
It is the study of the face and skull shape and it was used to discern personality
proprium
or propriate function
Gordon Allport
his version of the ego. The proprium acts somewhat consistently based on traits it has developed through experience.
Trait
a relatively stable characteristic of behavior that a person exhibits.
lexical approach
picking all the possible traits out of the dictionary
State
temporary feeling or characteristic
Difference between trait and state
Trait -> relatively stable - ej. outgoing
State -> temporary - ej. tired
taxonomies
organized categorization systems.
Big FIve
superfactors or dimensions that seem to encompass all of personality Superordinate traits
List the Big Five Dimensions
1) O-dimension - openness to experience, intellectual curiosity
2) C-dimension - conscientiousness
3) E - dimension -extroversion, enthusiasm
4) A-dimension - agreeableness
5) N - dimension - neuroticism, nervousness
remember OCEAN
dispositionists
people who emphasized internal determinants of behavior
situationists
such as behaviorists - only circumstances determine behavior
interactionists
combination of stable, internal factors and situations.
Seymour Epstein
critic of trait & type theories because they fail to take into account circumstances
consistency paradox
the possibility that a person may behave inconsistently.
Walter Mischel and Nancy Cantor
proposed the cognitive prototype approach
Cognitive prototype approach
cognitive behavior examined in social situations . consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes, rather than personality traits.
What have twin studies indicated about personality?
Its heritability is about 40-50%
Kay Deaux
found that women’s successes at stereotypically male tasks are often attributed to luck, while men successes are often attributed to skill.
-> Gender is a social construct that colors interpretations.
Do women have lower self-esteem than men?
yes, women tend to attribute their successes to luck.
Martina Horner
Females avoid masculine-type successes not because of fear to failure or lack of interest but because they feared success and its negative repercussions, such as resentment and rejection
Alice Eagly
found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced
Eleanor Maccoby & Carol Jacklin
scrutinized studies of sex-differences and concluded that very few existed that could not be explained by simple social learning.
What are consistent differences between people of distinct genders?
1)Females have greater verbal ability
2) Males have greater visual/spatial ability
1 & 2 are hotly debated but it has been attributed to internal biological or hormonal differences.
3) women are twice as likely as men to become depressed.
Who studied Type A personality?
Meyer Friedman and Ray Roseman
Who linked Type A personality with heart disease?
Grant Dahlstrom
Authoritarianism
disposition to view the world as full of power relationships.
F-Scale
or facism scale,
measures authoritarianism
List characteristics of authoritarians
1) highly domineering if they are the top dog of the situation and highly submissive if they are in presence of a more powerful figure.
2) conventional
3) aggressive
4) stereotyping
5) anti-introspective
What are the cuadrants formed by the cross of stable-unstable, introversion-extraversion
Hans Eysenck
1) phlegmatic
2) melancholic
3) choleric
4) sanguine
Personal constructs
George Kelly
conscious ideas about the self, others and situations
Implicit theories of personality
assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions o that person.
Barnum effect
tendency to agree with and accept personality interpretations that are provided.
Phenomenological view of personality
also of psychotherapy focuses on the individual’s unique self and experiences
Self-awareness
is a state - temporary condition ob being aware of how you are thinking, feeling or doing.
Large mirrors make people very self-aware
Self-consciousness
trait referring to how often one generally becomes self-aware
Costa and McCrae
found that personality changes very little after age 30
Stimulus-seeking
individuals have a great need for arousal
Mention the 2 best known tests of personality
MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
CPI California Personality Inventory
Henry Murray
developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Ambiguous story cards. People would project their needs on the cards, such as the need for achievement.
