Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Developmental psychology
branch of psychology that describes and explains changes in human behavior over time. The study of changes and transitions that accompany physical growth or maturation
How were children seen during the Middle Ages?
They were thought of as small, inferior adults who were expected to conform to adult standards for behavior at a very young age. Medieval paintings depicted children as miniature adults.
In which period of time do we find the routes of modern thought concerning children?
In the period following Renaissance
Who conformed the British empiricist school of thought?
Thomas Hobbes George Berkeley David Hume James Mill John Stuart Mill
What did the members of the British empiricist school of thought believe?
They believed that all knowledge is gained through experience.
What did Locke believe about children?
He believed that children’s mind was a tabula rasa, or a blank slate at birth. Children were born without predetermined tendencies. Their development completely relied on experiences with the environment. It is the role of parents and society to mold the child to fit into society.
What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau believe?
Society is not only unnecessary but also a detriment to optimal development.
Mention 1 relevant characteristic of the functionalist system of thought related to developmental psychology
It is important to study the mind as it functions to help the individual adapt to the environment
What is Charles Darwin contribution to developmental psychology?
He wrote a diary or biography of a child that was very useful and informative. He caused researchers to become interested in the study of individual differences in abilities such as hearing, seeing and problem solving.
G. Stanley Hall
considered the father of developmental psychology. Was one of the first psychologists to do empirical research on children. He was one of the founders of APA and the founder of child and adolescent psychology. Compiled hundreds of questionnaires on the views and opinions of children and compared them by age.
John Watson
Believed in the importance of environmental influences in child development and accepted Locke’s view of the tabula rasa. Watson’s theory placed a great responsibility on parents for raising competent children. Parents were charged with providing the right learning experiences while avoiding “sentimental” affection. he believed that emotions and thought were acquired through learning. Children are passively molded by the environment and their behavior occurs for imitation of their parents.
What did John Watson believe about the methods for studying psychology?
He maintained that only objective methods should be used to study behavior. Psychology should never consider consciousness, mental states, will, imagery, etc.
What should be the goal of psychology according to Watson?
to predict behavioral responses given particular stimuli; and vice versa.
Arnold Gessel
believed that development occurred as a maturational (or biological) process. regardless of practice or training. He was a “nativist” because he believed that much of development was biologically based and that developmental blueprint existed from birth.
psychodynamic orientation
System of thought that arose out of a clinical, rather than academic or research setting. These theories stress the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.
Cognitive theories of development
emphasize the thinking ability of people.
Cognitive structuralists
orientation of developmental psychology influenced by Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget
saw children more actively involved in their development since they constructed knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment. Humans experience an interaction between internal maturation and external experience that creates qualitative change
Mention the 3 research methods frequently used in developmental psychology
1) cross-sectional studies
2) longitudinal studies
3) sequential cohort studies
Cross-sectional studies
compare groups of subjects at different ages.
Longitudinal studies
compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time.
Sequential cohort studies
Compare a specific group of people combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. Several groups of different ages are studied over several years.
Clinical method or case study method
Attempts to collect facts about a particular child and his or her environment in order to gain a better perspective.
Nature/Nurture controversy
discussion about determinants of behavior: hereditary vs. environmental. It is now largely recognized that development is the result of a dynamic interaction between environmental and genetic forces.
Nature side of the Nature/Nurture controversy
human capabilities are innate and individual differences are largely an effect of the person’s genetic makeup.
Nurture side of the Nature/Nurture controversy
human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience.
Gregor Mendel
initiated the study of genetics. Observed the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants.
What is the basic unit of heredity?
The gene
What is an allele?
An alternative form of a gene
Genotype
The total genetic complement (genetic makeup) of an individual
Phenotype
the collection of expressed traits - observable characteristics of an individual
Can individuals with identical phenotypes have different genotypes?
Yes. Brown eyes with two dominant brown eyes alleles and brown eyes with one dominant and one recessive allele.
Can identical genotypes produce different phenotypes? Why?
Yes, due to variations in the environment.
Where are genes located?
In chromosomes.
Which pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the child?
The 23rd pair of chromosomes.
Does every cell in our body have 23 pairs of chromosomes?
No, gametes have only 23 chromosomes.
Which cells are diploid cells?
All that have 46 chromosomes
Which cells are haploid cells?
The gametes or sperm cells and egg cells. Because they have 23 chromosomes.
How much percent of common genes do children have with their parents?
aprox. 50%
How much percent of common genes do siblings have?
50% including fraternal twins.
How much percent of common genes do identical twins have?
100%
R.C. Tryon
studied inheritance of maze-running ability in laboratory rats.
Tyron tested a large group of laboratory rats on maze-running skill. After an equal number of first trials, rats were divided into 3 groups: maze-bright, maze-dull, and intermediate rats. By selectively breeding them, Tryon mated rats with similar maze running traits over several generations. The difference between maze-bright and maze-dull rats intensified. => learning ability has a genetic basis. However, it happened only in the kind of maze that Tryon developed. In other types of maze, there was no difference.
What are the three types of research methods that determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people?
1) Family studies
2) Twin studies
3) Adoption studies
Mention a finding regarding schizophrenia found using family studies.
risk of developing schizophrenia is 13 times higher in children of schizophrenic than general population. For siblings, it is 9 times higher => schizophrenia has an hereditary component.
What is the main limitation of family studies?
Families share genes and environment. Therefore, it is difficult to discriminate if the influence comes from genes or from the environment.
Twin studies
Generally compare monozygotic (identical twins MZ) and dizygotic (fraternal twins DZ) to distinguish effects of environment and genetics.
What are the main findings of twin studies?
MZ twins tend to be more similar in regard to cognitive, social and emotional characteristics than DZ twins.
What is the main criticism towards twin studies?
MZ twins are treated more similarly that DZ twins and MZ twins tend to imitate each other more than DZ twins. Therefore, MZ and DZ twins do not necessarily have the same environment.
Adoption studies
Compare the similarities between the biological parent and the adopted child to similarities between the adoptive parents and adopted child. Adopted children’s IQ is more similar to their biological parents.
Lewis Terman
compared a group of children with high IQ’s 135+ with normal children to discover similarities and differences. It was the first study on gifted children and it was a large-scale longitudinal study since measures were taken every five years.
Down’s Syndrome
genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra 21 chromosome. Often have varying levels of retardation. One factor affecting the possibility of the genetic mutation is the age of the biological parents.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
a genetic disorder, is a degenerative disease of the nervous system.
The disease results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine, an aminoacid found in milk and other foods, is lacking. Today infants are given tests for PKU and can avoid the effects of the disease with a strict diet.
Which was the first genetic disease that could be tested in large populations?
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Klinefelter’s syndrome
when males posses an extra X chromosome. XXY configuration. They are sterile and often have mental retardation.
Turner’s syndrome
Females with only one X chromosome. They can’t develop secondary sex characteristics. Often have physical abnormalities such as short fingers and unusually shaped mouths.
Mention 4 genetic diseases
1) Down’s Syndrome
2) Phenylketonuria
3) Klinefelter’s syndrome
4) Turner’s Syndrome
Mention the 4 stages of prenatal development
1) Zygote
2) germinal period
3) embryonic period
4) fetal period
Describe the zygote prenatal stage
The sperm cell fertilizes the egg and forms a single cell (zygote or fertilized egg)
describe the germinal period.
The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine wall. Lasts approx. 2 weeks after conception. The cell grows into 64 cells through cell division, and implants itself into the wall of the uterus.
Describe the embryonic stage
8 weeks following the germinal period. Lasts approximately until the end of the second month. Embryo increases in size by 2 million percent. The embryo grows to about an inch long and begins to develop a human appearance.The limbs appear and the tail begins to recede. Fingers, toes and external genitals appear. The male embryo begins to produce androgen in the testes. Nerve cells in the spine develop and the first behaviors (moving the limbs) occur. This stage basically consists of organ formation.
Describe the fetal period.
Takes place during the third month. measurable electrical activity takes place in the brain. In the remaining months, the fetus continues to grow in size. Quantitative growth occurs during this time, as well as movement (Called “quickening”)
What is the function of being in the uterus during the prenatal stages?
To have controlled conditions of temperature, chemical balance, orientation of the fetus with respect to gravity and atmospheric pressure.
What is the function of the placenta?
to transmit nutrients to the fetus while returning waste-laden blood to the mom. The mom provides nutrients although the fetus also produce them.
Mention viral infections that have deleterious effects on fetuses (7)
1) rubella
2) measles
3) mumps
4) hepatitis
5) influenza
6) chicken pox
7) herpes
What is the risk of contracting rubella during pregnancy? (4)
or German measles
if you contract it during the firs two months, the baby can be born with:
cataracts, deafness, heart defects, mental retardation.
What is thalidomide and what are its effects on fetuses? (6)
It is a tranquilizer normally prescribed during the 50’s. Babies were born with missing and malformed limbs and defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears, and kidneys.
Which could be some effects of protein deficiency? (3)
retard growth, mental retardation, reduction of immunities to disease.
Which could be some effects of maternal malnutrition?
It is the leading cause of abnormal development
Which could be some effects of maternal narcotic addiction?
produces chemically dependent infants who must undergo a traumatic withdrawal syndrome.
Which could be some effects of regular cigarette smoking? (3)
slowed growth, increased fetal heart rate, greater chance of premature birth.
Which could be some effects of daily use of alcohol? (2)
slowed growth, slowed psychological development,
Which could be some effects of prenatal exposure to X-Rays?(6)
retardation, defects of skull, spinal cord and eyes, cleft palate, and limb deformities.
Reflex
Behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus.
Rooting reflex
or head turning reflex
automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek.
Sucking reflex
when an object is placed in the mouth. They are reflexes related to the feeding situation
What are reflexes currently used for?
Before in human evolution -> adaptive purpose. Now they are used for assessing infant neural development by comparing the time at which each reflex appear to the established norms.
Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads or by loud or frightening noises by flinging (lanzar, arrojar) out their arms, extending their fingers and then bringing their arms back to their bodies and essentially hugging themselves. It usually disappears after 4 months and its presence at one year is a strong suggestion of developmental difficulties.
What has been the speculated use of the moro reflex by our ancestors?
Since prehuman ancestors may have lived in trees, this reflex may have served to prevent falling by instinctive clutching.
Babinski reflex
toes spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated.
Grasping reflex
or Palmar reflex
occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.
Uncoordinated movements in infants
kick, turn and wave their arms are the basis of later more coordinated movements.
Jean Piaget’s visions on development
one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology. Held that children pass through 4 stages of cognitive development, each stage being qualitatively different from the others. Cognitive growth is a continuous process that begins at birth.
Schema (schemata)
organized patterns of behavior and/or thought.
Behavioral schemata
Developed by infants, characterized by action tendencies
Operational schemata
developed by older children, characterized by more abstract representations of cognition.
Adaptation
Takes place through the complementary processes of accommodation and assimilation
Assimilation
process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata. fitting new information into existing ideas
Accommodation
When new information doesn’t fit into existing schemata. It is the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to this new information.
Mention Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development (in order)
1) Senrimotor
2) Preoperational
3) Concrete operational
4) Formal operational
the ages in which these stages take place may vary, but the order of the stages doesn’t vary
Sensorimotor stage (4 steps)
from birth to age two.
1) reflexive behavior cued by sensations
2) circular reactions (primary and secondary
3) object permanence
4) representation (visualizing or putting words to objects)
