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AQA Alevel Psychology 🧠⚖️ > Research Methods 1&2 > Flashcards

Research Methods 1&2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Aim

A

a statement of what the researchers intend to find out in a study

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

a precise and testable statement of prediction about outcome

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3
Q

Null

A

no difference between groups

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4
Q

Experimental

A

predict difference between groups

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5
Q

Directional

A

suggest direction of results used if previous shows one thing

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6
Q

Non-directional

A

suggests no direction of results normally has no previous research or has conflicting research

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7
Q

IV

A

variable that researcher manipulates

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8
Q

DV

A

variable that researcher measures

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9
Q

Extraneous

A

variables that could effect the IV that is not the DV

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10
Q

Confounding

A

when extraneous variables not controlled can damage validity

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11
Q

Situational

A

features of a situation that could effect results

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12
Q

Order effects

A

order taken for tests can effect results

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13
Q

Counterbalancing

A

ABBA

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14
Q

Participant variables

A

individual differences

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15
Q

Investigator Effects

A

experimenter unconsciously conveys to ppts how they should behave, called experimenter bias
experimenter is often unaware of the influence which they are exerting, but they have an influence nevertheless

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16
Q

Double Blind Design

A

ppt and conductor blind to aims of hypothesis

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17
Q

Inter-rater/observer Reliability

A

independent raters, rate and compare
single observers may miss important details or may only notice events that confirm their hypothesis
2 observers should carry out a experiment so their is no bias and compare results and discuss differences, correlating each pair of results and an overall figure is made
observe behaviour at same time

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18
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

if ppts guess the experiments intention change behaviour to suit aims
they may think they are doing this to be helpful - but its not actually helpful

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19
Q

Independent groups

A

different ppts take part in different conditions
i.e. group A listen to music while revising group B do not, results are compared
usually, ppts would be randomly allocated to each condition

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20
Q

Repeated Measures

A

every ppt takes part in every condition (results are compared to themselves)

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21
Q

Matched Pairs

A

different but similar ppts are used in each condition
they are matched on variables relevant to the study
monozygotic twins can be good for this as they are genetically perfectly matched

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22
Q

Population

A

refers to a large group of individuals who the researcher may be interested in studying

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23
Q

Target Population

A

group of people who take part in the research

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24
Q

Sample

A

desired sub-group of the population to be studied

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25
Q

Random Sample

A

all ppts have an equal chance of being selected

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26
Q

What should an aim be

A

clear and detailed
outline the purpose of the study

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27
Q

What shouldnt an aim be

A

a question

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28
Q

Operationalise

A

to make measurable

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29
Q

What a good hypothesis should include

A

all conditions groups/ comparisons
prediction …..will be
should be directional or non-directional
operationalised

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30
Q

Internal Validity

A

are we measuring what we intend to measure ,only thing effecting DV is IV

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31
Q

Examples of Situational Variables

A

heat
time of day
order effects e.g. two tests in a row might be fatigued or might get better, solution is splitting group and having one do the test in AB order and the others in BA order

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32
Q

Examples of Participant Variables

A

mood
IQ
anxiety
concentration

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33
Q

Controlling Investigator Effects

A

double blind deign, both the ppt and conductor are blind to the aims of hypothesis
experimenter may be unaware which variable the ppt is involved in
inter-rater reliability, independent raters rate same behaviours and then check agreement

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34
Q

Screw-you Effect

A

deliberately try to hinder the experiment

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35
Q

Controlling Demand Characteristics

A

single blind design - the ppt is unaware of which condition they are in or the researcher aims, this prevents the ppts from seeking clues about the aims and reacting to them
deception - lying about the aims of the study and/ or using distracting questions

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36
Q

Extraneous or Confounding

A

when extraneous variables are not controlled by the experimenter, they become confounding variables that can damage validity of the experiment

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37
Q

Independent Groups Strengths

A

avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only
avoids demand characteristics as people are less likely to guess aims

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38
Q

Independent Groups Limitations

A

more people are needed than with the repeated measures design (more time consuming + expensive)
differences between participants in the groups may effect the results, for example variation in age, gender, social behaviour

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39
Q

Repeated Measures Strengths

A

as the same ppts are used in each condition ppt variables are reduced
fewer people needed

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40
Q

Repeated Measures Limitations

A

there may be order effects, this limitation can be controlled using counterbalancing
demand characteristics, ppts guess aims and change behaviour

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41
Q

Matched Pairs Strengths

A

reduces ppts variables because the researcher has tried to pair us the ppts so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics
avoids order effects

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42
Q

Matched Pairs Limitations

A

if one ppt drops out you lose two ppts data
very time consuming to find closely matched pairs
impossible to match people exactly even identical twins

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43
Q

Four Types of Experiments

A

lab, field, natural, quasi

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44
Q

Laboratory Experiment

A

conducted in highly controlled environments (not always a literal lab)
could be in a classroom in which conditions have been controlled in

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45
Q

Laboratory Experiment Strengths

A

uses a standardised procedure and is easy to replicate
high control of extraneous variables, allows cause and effect to be established
highly controlled makes accurate measurements possible

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46
Q

Laboratory Experiments Limitations

A

settings may not reflect real life and therefore no ecological validity
demand characteristics could be an issue
ppts know they are being studied which could pose a problem because of the Hawthorne effect
could be time consuming and expensive compared to other methods

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47
Q

Natural Experiments

A

when the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring independent variable
iv would have occurred despite if the experimenter were interested or not
setting for this type does not have to be natural

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48
Q

Natural Experiments Strengths

A

this type of study might be especially useful in studying phenomena that would be unethical to manipulate

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49
Q

Natural Experiments Limitations

A

can only be used when IV occurs naturally
ppts cannot be randomly allocated to these groups, there is strong likelihood of confounding variables
researcher has no control over IV as it will have occurred in everyday life

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50
Q

Quasi Experiments

A

has an IV based on an existing difference between people, it has not been manipulated it just exists
experimenter does not control IV
can occur in lab conditions

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51
Q

Quasi Experiment Strength

A

often conducted in controlled conditions and so shares the strength of a lab study

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52
Q

Quasi Experiment Limitation

A

can only be used when IV varies naturally
ppts cannot be randomly allocated to these groups, there is strong likelihood of confounding variables

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53
Q

Field Experiments

A

conducted in a real, every day setting in the real world
experimenter still manipulates IV in this type of experiment

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54
Q

Field Experiments Strengths

A

high ecological validity because it is done in the ppts environment
if study is covert much less chance of DC happening

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55
Q

Field Experiments Limitations

A

more difficult to control extraneous variables in this type of experiment making it harder for other researchers to replicate

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56
Q

Generalisation and Bias

A

ideally the sample that is drawn will be representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings becomes possible
difficult to achieve due to diverse nature of individuals

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57
Q

Random Sample Methods

A

need a list of whole target population
1 - put these names/ numbers in a hat
2 - random name generator choose relevant number or name

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58
Q

Random Sample Strengths

A

is free from researcher bias (no influence over whose selected)

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59
Q

Random Sample Limitations

A

time consuming and can be difficult to conduct
no guarantee they are representative

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60
Q

Opportunity Sample

A

those people who are available at the time and are willing to take part

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61
Q

Opportunity Sample Strengths

A

it is a quick and easy/ convenient way of choosing ppts

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62
Q

Opportunity Sample Limitations

A

researcher bias - could approach people who look helpful
unrepresentative of target population

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63
Q

Volunteer Sample

A

ppts put themselves forward to be part of the sample

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64
Q

Volunteer Sample Strengths

A

easy and requires minimal input, so less effort and time consuming for reseacher

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65
Q

Volunteer Sample Limitations

A

volunteer bias - type of person

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66
Q

Systematic Sample

A

every nth person of the target population is selected to take part

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67
Q

Systematic Sample Strengths

A

avoids researcher bias, once system has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen

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68
Q

Systematic Sample Limitations

A

difficult to achieve, time consuming
no guarantee it will be truly representative

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69
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and work out the proportion needed for the sample to be representative

70
Q

Stratified Sample Strength

A

avoids researcher bias
designed to be representative of the population

71
Q

Stratified Sample Limitation

A

stratification is not perfect
difficult to have complete list of general population

72
Q

Sampling - representative, time consuming, biased

A

most representative to least representative
stratified, random, systematic, opportunity, volunteer
most time consuming to least time consuming
stratified, systematic, random, volunteer, opportunity
most biased to least biased
opportunity, volunteer, stratified/ random/ systematic

73
Q

BPS

A

the British Psychological Society is the representative body for psychology and psychologists in the UK, and is responsible for the proportion of excellence and ethical practice in science, education, practical applications of the discipline
the principles are: respect, competence, responsibility, integrity
if researchers break code of conduct they face losing their job

74
Q

Ethical Issues

A

informed consent
right to withdraw
privacy
confidentiality
protection from harm
deception

75
Q

Informed Consent

A

involves making ppts aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights and also what their data will be used for, only then can the ppts make an informed judgement of whether they wish to participate

76
Q

Right to Withdraw

A

this is available for ppts after they find out everything about the investigation and are completely informed

77
Q

Privacy

A

ppts have the right to control information about themselves, this is the right to privacy

78
Q

Confidentiality

A

if privacy is invaded then confidentiality should be protected, it refers to our right to have any personal data protected

79
Q

Protection from Harm

A

ppts should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from psychological and physical harm

80
Q

Deception

A

means deliberately misleading or withholding information from ppts at any stage of the investigation

81
Q

Ideal Consent Form

A

what will they be asked to do and why
things they may experience
how there data will be used
time duration
remind them of right to withdraw
give options
check box for participation
give opportunity to ask questions
signature, name, date
over 16 can sign it under has to be parent

82
Q

Alternative ways of getting consent

A

presumptive consent - ask a similar group of people if agreed, consent of ppts is presumed
prior general consent - ppts agree to take part in study they are consenting to being deceived
retrospective consent - asked after having already taken part

83
Q

Dealing with Ethical Issues (deception and protection from harm)

A

ppts offered a full debrief of experiment, contains true details of experiments, aims, conditions, what data will be used for and given right to withdraw data, ppts may require therapy researcher should provide

84
Q

Case Studies

A

case studies are in depth investigations of a single person, group event or community, typically data is gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods

85
Q

Case Studies Strengths

A

provides detailed information
provides insight for further research
permitting investigation of otherwise impractical or unethical situations

86
Q

Case Studies Limitations

A

providing little bias for generalization of results in the wider population
researchers own subjective feelings may influence the case study
difficult to replicate
time-consuming and expensive

87
Q

Pilot Studies

A

a pilot is a small scale run of the actual investigation and may involve only a few ppts
they are run for: experiments, self-report measures, observations

88
Q

Pilot Studies Evaluation

A

used to test the experiments effectiveness and make improvement before the real thing
allows them to identify issues early then rectify them saving time and money
any part of the study could be measured e.g. validity, how long it takes, if instructions are too complicated

89
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

takes place in the setting or context the target behaviour would usually occur

90
Q

Controlled Observation

A

there is some control over variables to observe effects and also control extraneous variables

91
Q

Participant Observation

A

the observer joins in the scenario being observed

92
Q

Non-participant Observation

A

the observer is separate from scenario being observed

93
Q

Covert Observation

A

the ppts dont know that they are being observed

94
Q

Overt Observation

A

the ppts know that they are being observed

95
Q

A03 Naturalistic vs Controlled

A

ecological validity - naturalistic because it happens in a natural setting high EV
extraneous variables - controlled, less variables
replicability - can be replicated in controlled setting

96
Q

A03 Covert vs Overt

A

ethics - in overt situations people know they are being filmed
DC - covert you wouldnt know you are being observed therefore behaviour wouldnt change

97
Q

A03 Participant vs Non-participant

A

more insight - participant, would understand ppts feelings
objectivity - non-participant, will be more objective

98
Q

Behavioural Categories

A

when a target behaviour is categorised into components that are observable and measurable, something you can see no interpretation
categories must be exclusive and not overlap

99
Q

Event Sampling

A

count every time a behaviour occurs during observation

100
Q

Time Sampling

A

count behaviours that occur in smaller time frames e.g. every five minutes count for 1 minute

101
Q

Time Sampling Evaluation

A

could miss infrequent behaviours

less effort for researcher

102
Q

Event Sampling Evaluation

A

can catch infrequent behaviours

more effort for researcher

103
Q

Questionnaires

A

set of written questions - designed to collect information
can discuss what people think or feel
always pre-determined
can be quantitative or qualitative
used to asses DV

104
Q

Quantitative

A

numerical - closed

105
Q

Qualitative

A

non-numerical - open

106
Q

Writing Good Questions

A

clarity - do not use double negatives
jargon - refers to technical terms that are only familiar to those in a specialised area
bias - do not use leading questions which make one answer more attractive than the other
analysis - questions need to be written so they are easy to analyse (open questions - hard to analyse, closed questions - easy to analyse)

107
Q

Likert scale

A

respondents can indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement, usually five levels

108
Q

Rating Scale

A

a means of assessing attitudes or experiences by asking a respondent to rate statements on a scale of 1 to 3 to 5

109
Q

Fixed Choice Option

A

questions with pre-determined number of answers

110
Q

Questionnaire Strengths

A

once you have designed a questionnaire you can use them for lost of people cheaply and quickly
respondents may feel comfortable to reveal personal information
can be completed without the investigator being present
reduces experimenter bias which can be found in interviews
no special experience needed to hand out questionnaires
questionnaires with open questions can provide unexpected answers which can lead to further research

111
Q

Questionnaire Limitations

A

can only be filled out by those who read and write
questionnaires using closed questions, limit response however easier to summarise
social desirability bias - answering questions in a way so you are deemed socially acceptable dont have to be honest
acquiescence bias when a ppt just ticks and agrees with all questions

112
Q

Structured Interviews

A

has pre-determined questions, face to face questionnaires
no deduction from original questions

113
Q

Unstructured Interviews

A

new questions developed during the course of the interview
interview may begin with general aims
more like a conversation

114
Q

Semi-structured Interviews

A

many interviews fall in between
job interview is semi-structured
list of questions worked out in advance but interviews are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel appropriate

115
Q

Structured Interview Evaluation

A

+ can be easily repeated because questions are standardised
+ different people can be compared due to the standard questions
+ answers are easier to analyse due to being predictable
- comparability if interviewer is different or behaves differently
- interviewer bias

116
Q

Unstructured Interview Evaluation

A

+ more detailed information can be obtained
- requires interviewer with more skills to develop questions
- questions may lack objectivity due to quick creation
- more expensive due to need for experienced interviewer
- interviewer bias

117
Q

Design of Interviews

A

record interviews to make sure all information taken down, visually or audially
schedule standardised for ppt to reduce effect of interviewer bias
an interviewer can effect answers by asking leading questions or hinting at the answers
body language - open interested, closed uninterested

118
Q

Effect of Interviewer

A

presence of an interviewer who is interested in the ppts answers may increase amount of information provided and vice versa

119
Q

what are descriptive statistics

A

they show patterns and trends in data

120
Q

what are the measures of central tendency

A

average - mean/median/mode

121
Q

what are the measures of dispersion

A

spread - range/standard deviation

122
Q

what are inferential statistics

A

they tell us of the likelihood that iv affected the dv
p < 0.05 this is the conventional levels, 5% or less likely that a chance factor affected dv
95% or more likely iv affected dv

123
Q

when can probability be lower

A

in drug trails it can be p < 0.01

124
Q

1st step in choosing a stats test

A

test of difference (experiment between two conditions) or association - correlation

125
Q

2nd step in choosing a stats test

A

experimental design
independent groups - unrelated
matched pairs - related
repeated measure - related

126
Q

3rd step in choosing a stats test

A

level of data you are using
nominal/categorical
ordinal data - can be ranked difference between rankings is not standardised
interval - ranked with standardised gaps, published scale e.g. height, weight, temp

127
Q

a test for: nominal data with independent groups

A

chi2

128
Q

a test for: ordinal data with independent groups

A

mann-whitney

129
Q

a test for: interval data with independent groups

A

unrelated t-test

130
Q

a test for: nominal data with matched pairs or repeated measures

A

sign test

131
Q

a test for: ordinal data with matched pairs or repeated measures

A

wilcoxon

132
Q

a test for: interval data with matched pairs and repeated measures

A

related t-test

133
Q

a test for: nominal data with a test of association

A

chi2

134
Q

a test for: ordinal data with a test of association

A

spearmans

135
Q

a test for: interval data with a test of association

A

pearsons

136
Q

acronym for stats test

A

milk - mann-whitney
will - wilcoxon
spoil - spearmans
unless - unrelated t-test
refrigerated - related t-test
properly - pearsons

137
Q

which test wont always give you the calculated/observed value

A

sign test

138
Q

type 1 error

A

error of optimists
accept experimental, reject null
when p value is too big
false positive

139
Q

type 2 error

A

error of pessimists
accept null, reject experimental
when p value is too small e.g. p<0.01
false negative

140
Q

types of reliability

A

internal reliability
external reliability

141
Q

internal reliability

A

the extent to which something is consistent within itself, we asses internal reliability by using the split half method where we compare scores from one half of the test with scores on the other half

142
Q

external reliability

A

the extent to which a test is consistent over several different occasions if the same interview was conducted with the same people one week and the next the outcome should be the same

143
Q

test-retest reliability

A

testing the same group of patients on more than one occasion and checking that there is significant positive correlation between the two sets of scores, sufficient time must be allowed between tests so that the ppts dont remember the answers

144
Q

inter-observer reliability

A

establishing reliability in observational research by using more than one observer to rate or code the different types of behaviour, two observers making recordings at the same time avoids research bias

145
Q

ensuring reliability with the experimental method: standardisation

A

in an experiment make sure that the conditions are the same, everyone receives standardised instructions, everyone does the same task, all extraneous variables are controlled. this is to ensure that the research can be replicated

146
Q

ensuring reliability with the experimental method: test/retest reliability

A

checks for variation in measurement taken by a single person with a single measurement tool for the same type of behaviour if the correlation between the two sets of scores is high then the measurement tool has good retest reliability

147
Q

how to improve reliability

A

taking more than one measurement from each ppt and calculating an average score
pilot studies - these ensure that the measure works and that all concerned can use the apparatus
training researchers properly: particularly when a number of researchers are collecting data, this improves inter-rater reliability, a pilot study can also help standardise procedures and data recording techniques
operationalising terms precisely so that all observers categorise behaviours in the same way

148
Q

validity

A

does it measure what it is meant to measure

149
Q

types of validity

A

external validity
- ecological validity
internal validity

150
Q

external validity

A

can the results be generalised from the setting in which they are obtained

151
Q

ecological validity

A

do the results reflect a persons real life behaviour, research carried out in a artificial environment like a lab does not

152
Q

internal validity

A

does the experiment really measure the effects of the iv on the dv

153
Q

further threats to validity

A

social desirability bias, investigator effects, order effects

154
Q

how to control internal validity

A

consent, not informed consent (deception), independent groups design

155
Q

ways of assessing validity

A

face validity
concurrent validity
predictive validity

156
Q

face validity

A

do the questions look like they measure what the researcher intended to measure, are they obviously related to the topic

157
Q

concurrent validity

A

check for this with a new research tool against an established tool, if the new research tool gives similar results than it has concurrent validity

158
Q

predictive ability

A

check for this by assessing two sets of data at different times e.g. look at the correlation of an initial diagnosis of mental state compared to the actual state over time, if the predicted behaviour at the initial diagnosis has occurred, the diagnosis has validity

159
Q

ways of improving validity and reliability

A

experimental research
questionnaires
observations
qualitative methods

160
Q

how are validity and reliability related

A

a study may be reliable but not valid
however if a measurement is not reliable then it can not be valid

161
Q

what should be included in a psychological report

A

title, abstract, introduction, aim, hypothesis, experimental/alternative hypothesis, method, procedure, results, discussion, references, appendix

162
Q

what is in the abstract

A

this is always written last because it is a summary of the report about 150 words, abstracts provide an efficient way of gaining information without having to read an entire study, they contain all the essential information that a researcher would need to know about replicating the study

163
Q

what is in the introduction

A

this tells everyone why the study is being carried out and the commentary should form a funnel of information, first there is a broad coverage of the background research, then the general research has been covered, the focus becomes much narrower finishing with the main researcher/research area you are hoping to refute. this then leads to the aim and the hypothesis

164
Q

what is the aim

A

this covers exactly what it is you are hoping to find out and how

165
Q

what is the hypothesis

A

this is a short testable statement, the independent variable must be operationalised and the dependent variable measurable, justification must be given for whether the test is to be directional or non-directional

166
Q

what is the alternative hypothesis

A

going against the normal hypothesis

167
Q

what is the method

A

this section is split inro sub-sections
design: experimental, non-experimental method used -laboratory/field/natural or correlation or survey method
design type - independent groups, related measures, matched pairs, correlation, observation, interview, IV, DV, EV, use of counterbalancing/ measures taken to avoid bias
ethical issues, participants, relevant details of target population - age/socio-economic status, gender, etc
relevant details of sample population, sampling method used, allocation to conditions, report of those who dropped out, materials, description of equipment used and how to use it

168
Q

what is the procedure

A

this is a step by step guide of how the study was carried out - when, where, how, including details of how variables were operationalised, instructions to ppts must be standardised to allow replication

169
Q

what is the results

A

this ection contains only a summary of the data, all raw data and calculations are put in the appendix, this generally starts with a section of descriptive statistics - measures of central tendency and dispersion. graphical representations of the data must also be clear and properly labelled and referred to in the text. one the summary statistics have been explained, there should be an analysis of the results of any inferential statistics, including observed values, how these related to the critical table value, significance level and whether the test was one or two tailed, this section finished with the rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis

170
Q

what is the discussion

A

begins with a statement of the findings and how these relate to the original hypothesis, all results are reported even if they do not fit in the hypothesis or science would not progress, all studies have flaws, so anything that went wrong, or the limitations of the study are discussed together with suggestions of how it could be improved if it were to be repeated . suggestions for alternative studies and future research can also be explored, the discussion ends with a paragraph summing up what was found and assessing the implication of the study and any conclusion that can be drawn from it

171
Q

what is the refernces

A

every researcher cited in the text must be fully refernced using the harvard system, referncing is time consuming but is important in order to prevent plagarism

AQA Alevel Psychology 🧠⚖️ (11 decks)

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