Issues and Debates Flashcards
nature/ nativists
we inherit influences from our parents
bescarles on the nature side of the debate
all human characteristics are innate, and some aspect of knowledge
characteristics including personality and intelligence are determined by genes, physical characteristics too e.g. height
heritability co-efficient (0-1)
designed to indicate the extent to which a trait has a biological basis
1 is entirely genetically determined
0.5 intelligence, Plomin
nurture/empiricists
empiricists believe in the intelligence of the environment
John Locke - born as a blank slate - he developed the behaviourist approach
levels of environment
there are different levels of the effect of the environment
learning whether learnings pre (from conception) or post natal (after birth)
examples of pre-natal can be the mother drinking, drugs, smoking
interactionism
looking at the extent to which side is influential e.g. eye colour argued to be interactional, melanin affects eye colour 0.8
diatheses stress model
models of mental illness which emphasis the interaction of nurture and nature
epigentics
environmental behaviour leave marker on our genes, doesnt change the genes but leaves a marker this has been found due to trauma, diet and smoking
nature: A03: anatomy is destiny
if we accept that anatomy is destiny we are on dangerous ground, because this is an extreme determinism stance, linking genetics to behaviour characteristics e.g. genetics + intelligence
leads to eugenics policies (master race)
1917 - IQ tests issued to immigrants before going into US, certain groups in society were labelled as feeble minded (hungarians, jews, russians)
1952 - genetics was suggested as the reason for IQ differences between white and black Americans, this is socially sensitive and has lead to issues in future
nature: A03: diatheses stress model
for some traits we see high concordance rates, suggesting there may be a genetic element, but pure nature is too extreme
diathesis stress explanations strengthen this idea highlighting that both nature and nurture play a role
nurture: A03: real life application - shape behaviour
it has been argued that nurture allows you to shape behaviour therefore can be used to shape society this has been applied to token economies however this a short term and unethical solution, e.g. in a prison a prisoner becomes reliant on the token economy in there which is not existent in real life therefore they struggle in the real world and have a great possibility of ending back in prison
nurture: A03: research to establish effect of environment is complicated
research cant easily establish the influence of the environment on behaviour, cant easily isolate role of learning (monozygotic twins)
shared and unshared environments, just become same environment or experience e.g. school doesn’t mean two sibling or twins will experience it the same way, this could be down to their own temperament
this helps explain why we cant get 100% concordance rates even in mz twin studies
constructivism
the idea that we shape our own nature by seeking appropriate environments for their nature
an aggressive child will feel more comfortable around children showing similar behaviour so will seek that out, this then further influences their behaviour
Plomin
niche-building ad niche-picking
gene-environment interaction: A03: scarr and mccartney
passive interaction - parents genes influence the way they treat their child
evocative interaction - the childs gene influences and shape the environment they grow up in
active interaction - the child creates their own environment through people and experiences
epigenetics: A03: environmental effects span generations
in 1944 - Nazis blocked distribution of food to dutch, 20,000 died of starvation
susser and lin (1992), women who fell pregnant during famine, had low-birth weight babies, these babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia than normal babies, trauma suffered left epigenetic marks impacting health of future offspring
free will
ability to make choice, empowering, gives our existence purpose
some lower levels in maslows hierarchy, food and water are deterministic, we exercise free will more up the levels
free will really important in terms of reward, responsibility and morality all require free will
determinism
external and internal factors beyond our control
fatalism
is an extreme belief in determinism
types of determinism
hard, soft, psychic, biological, environmental
hard determinism
extreme belief everything is beyond our control e.g. biological
soft determinism
some factors are beyond our control, but allows for some choice e.g. cognitive all born with ability to think, choice in thoughts
psychic determinism
freud, unconscious mind (childhood experiences) free will is an illusion
biological determinism
genetics, physiology drives behaviour
environmental determinism
behaviourism, reinforcement + conditioning, agents of socialisation free will is an illusion
features of science
predict, cause, effect
case for determinism - consistent with science
determinism is consistent with the aims of science in addition the value of such research means the prediction and control of human behaviour and potentially developing treatments
case against determinism - no 100% concordance and chaos effect
never get 100% concordance, no behaviour purely genetic (80% intelligence - predetermined)
chaos theory/butterfly theory - small change in initial conditions, can lead to big changes down the line, flap of butterfly wings can set of action of events that cant be predicted therefore this does against determinism because it goes against prediction
case for determinism - mental health
if we accept it is genetically/ biologically driven then that has implications for the future we can find cause, start treatment, predict at risk individuals and targeted interventions
case against determinism - justice system
a criminal gene, never accepted in a court of law, needs responsibility
case against determinism - depression linked to fatalism
internal locus of control - 2000 adolescents with belief in fatalism at greater risk of developing depression
case for free will - taking responsibility
results in people taking responsibility and being held accountable this aids functioning in society
however could still be an illusion of free will - freud/skinner - product of reinforcement we have experienced
case for free will - protects our mental health
even if free will is an illusion it protects our mental health
Libet et al (1983) - activity in motor area occurs before they made conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger up to 1/10 second
holism
Gestalt psychology famously declared ‘that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’, this view is the basis of holism in psychology and any attempt to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as these can only be understood by understanding the person or behaviour as a whole
reductionism
analyses behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts, based on the scientific principle of parsimony: that all phenomenon should be explained using the most basic principles
levels of explanation in psychology
different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology
biological reductionism
we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes
thus all behaviour is at same level biological and so can be explained through neurochemical, neurophysiological, evolutionary, and genetic influences
environmental reductionism (stimulus-response)
behaviourists study observable behaviour only and in doing so break complex learning into simple stimulus-response links that are measurable within the laboratory
case for holism - research studies
zimbardos spe shows how the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards couldnt have been understood by just studying the individuals. it was their interactions and group behaviour that were important in understanding the way we conform to social roles
case against holism
Over complicates behaviours which may have simpler explanations. It is often difficult to study lots of explanations at once. This can mean that it gathers little data on lots of explanations, therefore lacking depth in its explanations.
case for reductionism - practical applications
biological reductionism has led to development of biological therapies by breaking complex behaviours into small parts for example research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes that could cause a vulnerability to developing schizophrenia, the reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of to be identified and potentially dealt with
case against reductionism - low level explanation
low level explanations can cause problems by overlooking the true meaning of behaviour
wolpe (1973) treated a woman who had a fear of insects with systematic desensitisation, however there was no improvement and it was later revealed that her fear stemmed from her husband having an insect related nickname, therefore her fear of insects was also linked to her worries about her marriage, this highlights that a reductionist view cannot treat complex problems, because a low level explanation is very simplistic it couldnt explain why wolpes patient felt the way she did
idiographic
describes the nature of the individual, people are studied as unique entities, each with their own private/subjective experiences, motivations and values
idiographic methods
qualitative data, such as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self report measures, reflecting the central idiographic aim to describes the richness of human experience
nomothetic
produces general laws of human behaviour which provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured and future behaviour can be predicted and or controlled
three kinds
classifying people into groups
establishing principles
establishing dimensions
nomothetic methods
more closely aligned with those methods that would be regarded as scientific within psychology such as experiments and observations
uses scientific and quantitative data
group averages are statistically analysed to create predictions
examples of idiographic approach in psychology
phinneas gage, HM, clive wearing, humanistic approach
examples of nomothetic approach in psychology
cognitive, biological, behaviourist, SLT, schaffer and emerson
case for the idiographic approach
provides a more complete global understanding of the individual
satisfies key aim of science - description and understanding of behaviour
findings can serve as a source of ideas or hypotheses for later study e.g. brocas case study of tan found that brocas areas is for speech production, this was done using a post mortem
case against idiographic approach
difficult to generalise from detailed subjective knowledge about one person
often regarded as non-scientific as subjective evidence can not be empirically test
largely neglects biological, especially genetic influences
case for nomothetic approach
regarded as scientific as it is precise measurement, prediction and control of behaviour, investigation of large groups, objective and controlled methods allowing replication and generalisation has helped psychology as a whole become scientific by developing laws and theories which can be empirically tested
case against nomothetic approach
predictions can be made about groups but these may not apply to individuals
nomothetic approaches have been accused of losing sight of the whole person
gives a superficial understanding - people may act the same for different reasons
extensive used of controlled laboratory experiments creates a lack of generalisation to everyday life
idiographic and nomothetic working together
both have a role but a relative value of each depends on the purpose of the research
two approaches can be complimentary - idiographic can further develop a nomothetic law
both can contribute to scientific approach - idiographic suited to description, nomothetic to predictions
universality and bias
psychologists are people, people posses beliefs and views influenced by social and historical context so bias could be inevitable
this undermines claims of psychology being objective and having universality inf findings
sex
biological xx or xy
gender
social construct you identify with
what is gender bias
it is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others
in view of gender this may represent a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women
women have historically been seen as inferior, Freud viewed them as inferior, irrational and hysterical
also there are and were more male researchers and more males in research therefore research was about male concerns
what is alpha bias
research that exaggerates or overestimates the difference between men and women
presented as if these differences are fixed (permanent), inevitable, enduring
results in women being viewed different and negatively in similar behaviour as males counterparts
sociobiological theory of relationships - essentialist argument
explains human sexual attraction through survival efficiency
males best interest to impregnate multiple women, this increases the chance of their genetics being passed on in healthy children, this tells us that sexual promiscuity is genetically determined and beyond control
females best interest is to focus on fewer children, fewer men (steady resources and protection), women who engage in sexual promiscuity are going against their nature
essentialist argument - gender differences are fixed in nature
Freuds theories
viewed femininity as failed masculinity
women are inferior due to penis envy, cannot undergo the oedipus complex, cannot resolve castration anxiety
morality principle - cannot develop superegos cannot resolve oedipus complex
freud suggests that superego develops from resolving castration anxiety so therefore women are morally weaker
beta bias
ignores, minimises or under estimates the differences between men and women
e.g. asch, milgram, zimbardo only studies men and then applied results to women
often occurs when female ppts are not included in the research process and research then applied to both sexes
Sheridan + King, puppy electrocuted, 100% women = max shock
example: fight or flight response, early research based on male animals, since ‘female animals had too many hormone fluctuations making them too hard to study’
assumed to be a universal response to danger
recent suggestions are that women have evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response
research has showed that women tend to from defensive networks in order to care for offspring
womens reaction to stress was and is unresearched
androcentrism
a type of beta bias
male centred: normal behaviour is judged against male standards, female behaviour viewed as abnormal
androcentrism examples
PMS - stereotypes and trivialises female experience its a social construction - medicalising female experience + emotion
anger - males are stressed due to work pressure and that is a rational response
while in females its irrational and ridiculous
gynocentrism
behaviour bias judged by females standards
female perspectives
counter androcentrism - there are biological differences in sex but socially determined stereotypes have a greater impact
social change needs to start with revising the facts, we need to highlight and discover the areas where women are weaker e.g. leadership roles and therefore create training/ support/ opportunities
Eagly (1978) and Cornwell (2013)
women are less effective leaders so we need to train them better
women are better learners, more attentive, organised and flexible
Reverse alpha bias
create theories that demonstrate difference but emphasis importance of women
challenges stereotypes and changes the preconceptions
bias in research methods
gender biased due to the method beings used
Rosenthal (196) - male researchers more friendly to female ppts then they are to male ppts, so males are going to perform less well therefore we lose validity
A03 - lab experiments
lack ecological validity this tells us little about real-life
eagly and johnson (1990) men + women real world leaders - found no difference in ability however men were better in lab studies
A03 - avoiding a beta bias
equal treatment for men and women has given women more opportunities but may create its own problems
arguing for equality detracts from men and women having different needs
in society, men appear to still hold more power
e.g. equal parent leave, this legislation ignores the physical toll on pregnant women :physical pregnancy, childbirth, breast feeding. this ends up disadvantaging women
A03 - gender bias - examining assumptions
darwins theory of natural selection shows women as choosy and men as the competitors to be chosen
women more choosy because cost is higher, limited opportunities, biological clock, one pregnancy at a time
rooted in victorian society - women can be choosy, competitive, aggressive
DNA evidence that suggests women should have offspring with more than one partner
women in competition for best mate
A03 - gender bias - sexism in research
lack of female representation at senior research levels means female concerns may not be reflected in research conducted
Murphy (2014) researchers and lecturers in psych subjects were more likely to be male even though intake mostly female
2018 - 1000 articles which related to gender bias looked at it over 8 years and they found that research into gender bias is less founded than other topics and when its published it goes into less prestigious journals, this means that its being kept low profiles probably due to its social sensitivity
potential psychology is supporting a form of institutional sexism
A03 - gender bias - reflexivity
many modern researchers are reflecting on the impact their values and assumptions have on their work instead of seeing it as bias they see it as critical to the research process
e.g. female researchers in senior positions need to reflect on own experiences
ethnocentrism
a type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of ones own culture
a belief in the superiority of ones own cultural group
e.g. Ainsworth who said B was universal
cultural relativism
the idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
cultural bias
overlooking differences by looking at human behaviour from the perspective of your own culture
etic approach
studying behaviour across many cultures to find universal human behaviours
looks at behaviour from outside and attempts to describe these behaviours as universal
aschs conformity study we should see the same rates of conformity from his study to other conformity studies however we dont
culture bound syndromes
groups of syndromes classified as treatable illness in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the weste
emic approach
studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to the cultures
functions from inside a culture
e.g. Swazi herdsmen, they know characteristics of all cattle, represent wealth and status
individualist culture
refers to western countries like the US, that are thought to be more independent
collectivist cultures
refers to cultures such as india and china that are said to be more conformist and group oriented
research tradition
the familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological traditions
what does berry say that psychology is guilty of
argues that psychology is often guilty of imposing an etic approach, we argue that theories and models are universal when they come from emic research within a single culture
we need to be more aware of things being culturally relative
alpha bias but cultural
alpha bias exaggerates it occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, and that recognition of these enduring differences must always inform psychological research and understanding
beta bias but cultural
beta bias on the other hand, occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be that same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume that all cultures are the same
A03 - cultural bias - individualism vs collectivism
personal achievement or group community
germany uk/us or japan/china
simplistic - van uzendoorn + kroonenborug
intra 150%
takano and osaka (1999) - 14/15 studies compared the usa and japan and found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism
this suggests that cultural bias not as prevalent as it was
japan changing urban = type b
A03 - cultural bias - cultural relativism vs universality
imposed etics remind us of the culturally specific nature of psychological work
but we can still have universal behaviours :facial expressions, interactional synchrony
research - test one main hypothesis in a variety of cultures
A03 - cultural bias - unfamiliarity with research tradition
knowledge and rigour of scientific testing may not extent to all cultures
so dc may be exaggerated when working with members of the population, this in turn can affect validity
western culture more used to research, other cultures will be hostile and suspicious of motive
therefore need to be culturally sensitive and include peoples from the culture this will help us challenged implicit biases
A03 - cultural bias - operationalisation of variables
the variables under review may be experience differently by different people
IQ uganda vs uk
western = punch and stab
thailand = pointing
maori = war dance
A03 - cultural bias - cultural psychology, new emerging branch
cohen (2012)
study of how people shape and are shaped by cultural experience
includes anthropology, sociology and political science
take an emic approach, conduct research from inside the culture with local researchers using culturally based techniques
progressing to be more culturally aware
A03 - cultural bias - ethnic stereotypes
WWI IQ tests on 17.5 million army recruits
ethnocentric questions - names of US presidents - south eastern, european and african-american got poorest scores
led to views of genetic inferiority
cultural bias being used to justify prejudice and discriminate
what is socially sensitive research
topics being researched are likely to evoke a strong emotional response from ppts or where there are potential consequences or implications for the community involved
why is bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment more importantly continuity of care an example of socially sensitive research
it is socially sensitive because it has major lifestyle implications for the lifestyle choices mothers make when there children are young
why is research that was done on IQ in america between different races socially sensitive
this is socially sensitive because it puts other races above others by limiting a races intelligence on their genetics
sieber and stanley (1988) identified 4 aspects of the research process which could lead to ethical issues and social consequences
the research question
the methodology
the institutional context
interpretation and application of findings
as a result of identifying the 4 aspects of the research process they then identified 10 types of ethical issues that relate specifically to socially sensitive research
privacy
confidentiality
informed consent
deception
equitable treatment
valid methodology
scientific freedom
ownership of data
values
risk/benefit ratio
ethical implications and social sensitivity: research question
researcher must consider their research question carefully, asking question like ‘are their racial differences in iq’ - may be damaging to members of a particular group
ethical implications and social sensitivity: methodology
researcher needs to consider the treatment of the ppts and their right to confidentiality and anonymity, for example if someone admits to committing a crime should the researcher maintain confidentiality
ethical implications and social sensitivity: the institutional context
researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research
if the researcher is being funded by a private organisation why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings
ethical implications and social sensitivity: interpretation and application of findings
researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world, could the date be used to inform policy
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: privacy
some research can lead to social policies that are an invasion of peoples privacy e.g. aids research could lead to laws resulting in scientific people having to undergo compulsory testing
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: confidentiality
data is not often breached in psychological research except for when it involves adolescents and genetic biological psychology
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: informed consent
informed consent should always be used when doing research however it shouldnt be used when the ppt knowing what will take place could affect the internal validity of the study
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: deception
self-deception is something people do to deny relevance or importance of opposing evidence, by doing this it can lead us to believe in false stereotypes despite knowing the truth someone knows that males and females are equally smart due to genetics but they still believe males are smarter
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: equitable treatment
opportunities within research need to be available to all, for example you can undervalue one group over another in the name of research, you could not give one group access to education and deny the other
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: valid metholodology
validity is the extent to which a test accurately measures what its meant to test
some organisations may use very small sample sizes like 5 people and then present very high statistics like 90% of customers were happy
therefore they are advertising large percentages but they have small sample sizes
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: scientific freedom
maybe scientific research should be censored to ensure that scientific research doesnt get in the hands of the wrong people who might use it for the wrong reasons
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: ownership of data
who funds research is important to think about
for example pharmaceutical and tobacco companies funded research that supported their messages
with private organisation they want to retain the right of the commercial use of data
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: values
scientists all hold different values so not all scientific research will account for differences in culture and it will most likely be centered around the researchers personal views
types of ethical issues which relate to socially sensitive research: risk/benefit ratio
what is the ratio of benefits to risk is what we are doing worth it if the risk is higher than the benefit
the hadow report
the report was widely influenced by the work of Cyril Burt who had used studies of identical twins to support his view that intelligence is largely genetic
the hadow report led to the creation of the 11+ entry test for selective grammar schools was used throughout england in 1944-1976 and we still see it today
children were selected based on a snapshot of information in a single moment this potentially had impact on generations of children in terms of the academic outcome they gained
A03: socially sensitive research: safeguarding those affected by research
sieber and stanleys works provides a mechanism to safeguard those affected by research and the ppts family and friends because there are wider implications of research. current ethical guidelines focus on direct effects of research practice on ppts but this means they dont address the way it affects others on society, ethical guidelines dont require researchers to consider how those findings are used or shared by others
A03: socially sensitive research: psychologists need to be energetic
psychologists need to be energetic with what happens with their findings, psychologist need to be aware of the possibility that the results of their research might lead to abuse or discrimination
for example make use of organisations including the bps in order to promote evidence based psychological research to the media and to help consider the way in which this can be achieved so as not to disadvantage any groups within society
individual researchers should be supported in presenting their research in a socially sensitive way, as opposed to neutral position
A03: socially sensitive research: current ethical guidelines are insufficient
current ethical guidelines are insufficient for protecting ppts, psychologists develop strict guidelines that aim to protect the immediate needs of research ppts but they may not deal with all the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of society
for example at present ethical guidelines dont ask researchers to consider how their research might be used by others
suggests that the considerations outlined some time ago have not yet permeated into professional practice
A03: socially sensitive research: just avoid socially sensitive research
this would mean that findings which could have negative implications would not be of concern as the consequences would be avoided
but this could leave psychologists with nothing to examine but unimportant issues
