Approaches Flashcards
key features of science
-empirical methods and replication ( getting the same results when repeating)
- the role of peer review in validating research
-hypothesis testing (accept or refute statement)
-use of objective methods
Willhelm Wundt
-first man to be considered a “psychologist”
-believed all things including the human minds can be studied scientifically
-opened the first psychology lab in Germany
- studied introspection
introspection
‘looking into’- how things made people feel
The Behaviourist Approach assumptions
-ALL behaviour is learned form the environment
-nothing is innate and we are born as a blank slate {tabula rasa}- life experiences teach us
- rejects introspection, as it is observable behaviour
classical conditioning
learning through association
-pairing two stimuli together to create a connection
Pavlov’s Experiment
dogs with food and salivation
(details on next card)
before conditioning in Pavlov’s Experiment
food (unconditioned stimulus) shown to dog and the dog salivates (unconditioned response)
during conditioning in Pavlov’s Experiment
sound of a bell( neutral stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus) at the same time
after conditioning in Pavlov’s Experiment
the bell WITHOUT food (conditioned stimulus) makes the dog salivate (conditioned response)
problems with Pavlov’s Experiment
-done on dogs so cannot be generalised to humans- they are not as cognitively developed as humans and don’t understand things the way we do
Little Albert Experiment- before conditioning
the white rat (neutral stimulus) is shown to Albert and he has no response
then a loud noise is made (unconditioned stimulus) and the child is fearful (unconditioned response)
Little Albert Experiment- after conditioning
white rat (without the loud noise) creates fear from child (conditioned response)
operant conditioning
learning through rewards and consequences
positive reinforcement
addition of something strengthens behaviour- encouraging someone to do it again
negative reinforcement
removal of unpleasant stimulus strengthens
e.g your mum nags you (unpleasant stimulus) about your messy room, by tidying your room you are removing the negative stimulus as they won’t nag you anymore
punishment
unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Skinner’s Box Experiment- positive reinforcement
done with rats in a box- when the rat pressed a leaver it presented food, the rat repeated this once it realised it got food, the rat is being rewarded with food
Skinner’s Box Experiment- negative reinforcement
the rats were given an electric shock and it was taken away when a certain behaviour was performed- the rat is avoiding an unpleasant stimulus by acting a certain way.
AO3- behaviourist approach is scientific
strength ✅ the behaviourist approach gathers objective data(not an opinion) through lab experiments (controlled)
-this also means that we can repeat the experiments and check for reliability
HOWEVER ❌ lacks ecological validity as it does not reflect real life, limits behaviourist approach from being generalised
AO3- behaviourist approach has real life applications (operant conditioning)
strength ✅ operant conditioning- token economy- tokens/awards can be given out at school and prisons awarding for good behaviour (positive reinforcement) this means people will repeat the behaviour to be rewarded again. Detentions and punishments are also given out at school (negative reinforcement)
AO3- behaviourist approach has real life applications (classical conditioning)
strength ✅ phobias can be unlearned through counter conditioning
AO3- behaviourist approach relies on animal studies
weakness ❌ animal results cannot be generalised to humans as we have different cognitive ability, levels of awareness, lack emotion and brain development compared to animals , so it cannot be said that we would behave the same way to the animals when in these conditions, results are less valid
AO3- behaviourist approach experiments are not ethical
weakness ❌ the animals may now associate the two stimuli for the rest of their lives
HOWEVER, it is more ethical to do on animals than on humans, as they are easier to breed, and it can be argued they are not developed enough to remember/associate
AO3- behaviourist approach ignores thought processes
weakness ❌ the approach only looks at what can be observed and ignores internal mental processes- disadvantage as we know we have thought processes so by ignoring them, it can be seen as unreliable
Biological Approach Assumptions
-all behaviour is strongly influenced by our genetic makeup and inheritance- behaviour is not learned
-behaviour is within you, innate
-everything psychological was once biological
genetic basis of behaviour
behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics, such as mental disorder and personality are inherited the same way as characteristics such as eye colour- twin studies are used
twin studies
-used to see if characteristics are genetic identical(monozygotic) have higher concordance rates than non-identical (dizygotic) for music ability, love for certain things - suggests genetic basis because MZ share 100% of the same genes
genotype
actual genetic makeup
phenotype
how the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
expression of genotype
influenced by environmental factors, e.g identical twins still look different due to one maybe exercising more or one has dyed their hair
evolution of behaviour (Darwin)
all living things have evolved over time through process of natural selection
- the weaker genes ‘die out’ and adaptive ones survive
genetics
study of genetic makeup of organisms and how genes influence physical and behavioural characteristics
hereditary
traits and behavioural tendencies inherited from ones parents
concordance rates
the higher= more likely a genetic trait
family studies
never 100% as none have the same genetics but likely shared environment
adoption studies
-can split MZ twins and raise them in different environments, and if they behave the same, you can assume that it is innate and not learned form environment
AO3- biological approach uses scientific methods
strength ✅ MRI’s able to accurately measure biological processes, not open to bias/opinion and there is evidence to support (twin studies)
AO3- biological approach can be applied in real life
strength ✅ understanding of biochemical processes lead to development of psychoactive drugs to treat mental illnesses- people who suffer can be helped and live a normal life
AO3- biological approach has a deterministic view of behaviour
limitation❌- sees human behaviour as internal and controlled by biological causes- implications when people are in prison as they could use the excuse that they had no control over themselves and not responsible
AO3- biological approach- difficult to separate nature and nurture
limitation ❌twins and families tend to be brought ups in the same environment as well as similar/same genetic material- so it cannot be determined whether the behaviour is from the environment or internal- also unethical to separate twins at birth just for science- has to be accidental- which is rare
social learning theory assumptions
much of our behaviour is learned from experience- through OBSERVATION and IMITATION of others- indirectly and directly through classical and operant conditioning
-NOT INNATE- learned
identification
attaching oneself to a model because they have the same qualities you wish to process
imitation
copying a behaviour
model
any person who shows examples of behaviour
modelling
imitating a behaviour that has been shown by a model who you have identified with
reinforcement
the consequences of behaviour, behaviour followed by positive reinforcement is strengthened and is likely to continue
nurture
behaviour is learned through environmental experience, not innate
vicarious reinforcement
not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone being reinforced- like second hand
what is SLT?
the bridge between learning theory/ behaviourist approach and the cognitive approach
attention (meditational process)
the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
retention (meditational process)
how well the behaviour is remembered
motor reproduction (meditational process)
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
motivation (meditational process)
the will to perform the behaviour
Bandura et al (1961) imitation
young children watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll- hit the hammer and shouted abuse at it
- when the children were later observed with various toys along with the bobo doll- they behaved much more aggressively with the bobo doll
Bandura et al (1961) vicarious reinforcement
young children watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll- hit the hammer and shouted abuse at it
One group saw the adult praised for their behaviour, a second saw them being punished, and a third (control) saw no consequence
The first group showed much more aggression, followed by third, then second
AO3- SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors
limitation ❌- bandura found that boys were more aggressive than girls- this can be explained by hormonal factors such as levels of testosterone- which is present in greater quantities in men and is linked to aggressive behaviour- this is not accounted for in SLT.
AO3- SLT- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
limitation ❌banduras study where in lab settings- ppts may respond to demand characteristics in lab settings
- also the main purpose of bobo dolls is to be pushed over so its argued the children were behaving the way that they were expected
-important influence on behaviour is not accounted for in SLT
AO3-SLT explains cultural differences
strength ✅ can account for how children learn from people around them as well as through the media- can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through societies - helps understanding a range of behaviours
the cognitive approach assumptions
internal mental processes should be studied scientifically- in direct contrast to behaviourist approach
-study indirectly
cognitive approach studies…
human behaviour that is neglected by behaviourists- memory,percpetion and thinking
cognitive psychologists use
theoretical and computer models to help them understand internal mental processes
information processing approach
suggests information flows through the cognitive system in sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval (MSM)
information processing approach is based on..
the way computers function- a computer model involves programming a computer to see if instructions produce a similar output to humans
if computer models produce a similar output to humans it means that..
similar processes are going on in the human mind- have provided useful development of ‘thinking machines’ or AI
schema
‘packages’ of ideas and info developed through experience and act as a mental framwork for interpretation of incoming info received through cognitive system.
cognitive processing can be affected by…
a persons beliefs or expectations (schema)
an example of a schema
a chair- something with 4 legs that you can sit on- learned through experience that that is a chair- helps you respond appropriately
as we get older our schema..
becomes more sophisticated and detailed
schema enables us to
process lots of info quickly and acts as mental ‘short-cut’ that prevents us from becoming overwhelmed
however our schema..
may also distort our interpretations and memory- leading to errors
cognitive neuroscience
scientific study of influence of brain structures on mental processes
AO3- cognitive approach scientific and objective methods
strength ✅highly controlled methods in order to research- use flab experiments to produce RELIABLE and OBJECTIVE data - this means that study of the mind has established credible scientific basis
AO3- cognitive approach- machine reductionist
limiation ❌ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how if affects our ability to process information e.g anxiety has an impact on EWT
AO3- cognitive approach- everyday life application
cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research, therefore the theories are sometimes too abstract and theoretical, similarly experimental studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday memory experience therefore lack external validity
humanistic approach assumptions
all humans have free will and are unique
they should be viewed holistically rather than only looking at small components
want to reach self-actualisation
humanistic is based on free will
humanism means that we have free will and that humans are self-determining, it is a person-centred approach (idiographic)
maslow and self-actualisation
maslow refers to a hierarchy of needs and it explains human motivation
achieving full potential
maslows pyramid
top to bottom
self-actualisation
self-esteem
love and belonging
safety and security
physiological needs
conditions of worth
when you are told that you will only be a valuable person if you behave in a certain way
self-actualisation
achieving one’s true potential in life
free will
the ability to choose one’s own behaviour - it is not determined by factors outside of the individuals control
ideal self
the person you would like to be
actual self
the person who you really are
incongruence
when the ideal self and the actual self are different, can lead to low self-esteem and depression
feelings of incongruence might be traced back to childhood caused by lack of unconditional positive regard by parents
unconditional positive regard
valuing the person for who they really are no matter what they do, reduces incongruence
person-centred therapy
a form of therapy where the individual uses their free will to grow and develop, reduces incongruence. not directed by the therapist - the client makes own decisions
holism
understanding the individual as a whole rather than the component parts
A03 - humanistic approach - holistic approach
it takes a holistic approach, this means that we see the person as a whole rather than individual components, furthermore as behaviour is considered in a real-world context this approach may have more validity as it consider real life context
this in contrast to approaches including behaviourism because they adopt a reductionist stance means that behaviour is pre-determined so there is no free will
A03 - humanistic approach - cultural bias
it has been suggested that the ideas in humanism represent a cultural bias, ideas including individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth are based on individualistic cultures. this is in contrast to collectivist cultures who value needs of the group, community over independence. as a result it can be argued that it would be inappropriate to generalise to collectivist cultures
A03 - humanistic approach - untestable concepts
concepts including self-actualisation are difficult to examine under experimental conditions, the use of a q-sort was designed to introduce a more objective method , however this has been criticised due to a lack of empirical evidence
A03 - humanistic approach - positive approach
on the other hand, humanism has been widely praised for its positive approach to human behaviour, the idea that humans are basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential. this is contrast to Freud who viewed humans as being driven by sexual and aggressive drives
A03 - humanistic approach - no real life application
limited application, concepts like maslows hierarchy of needs have been applied in areas like counselling but despite this the applications are limited
psychodynamic assumptions
all behaviour has an unconscious causes which we are not aware of
psychodynamic important features
mind is split into three levels
personality develops through the psychosexual stages of development
personality is split into three parts
ego defence mechanisms
conscious mind
things you are aware of - tip of the iceberg
pre-conscious mind
arent aware of but can pull into conscious
unconscious mind
push traumatic/embarrassing memories here
anything we dont want to deal with on a daily basis
ID
the pleasure principle, born with it till 18 months
demands instant gratification
SUPER EGO
morality principle, develops 3-6 years old
right and wrong, captures parental and societal values
EGO
reality principle, develops at 18 months
balances ID and SUPEREGO
defence mechanism
denial - refusal to accept reality
repression - force distressing ideas from conscious to unconscious
displacement - transfer true feelings on to a safer target
what are the psychosexual stages
oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
oral stage
focus of pleasure to breastfeeding + mouth fixation + pen chewing, nail biting, smoking
anal stage
1-3 potty training, focus of pleasure is anus
control, expelling/withholding faeces
fixation = anal retentive, anal repulsive, controlled perefectionist, messy
phallic stage
3 - 6 pleasure focus is genital
boys is oedipus complex leads to super ego, young boys develop attraction to mother, boys realise mother has no penis, father castrated her, boys fear rather will do the same to them, develop castration anxiety, see father as powerful, to resolve this boys identify with father, become like him, internalise fathers super-ego. oedipus, jealous of father (object of mothers desire
Jung did Electra complex where girls desire father , develop penis envy, resolve by identifying with mother, desire a baby
latent stage
6 - 13 repression of earlier complexes, focus on school and friends
genital stage
puberty onwards - genitals, sexual desires
fixation = struggle to form heterosexual relationships
A03 - psychodynamic - unconscious mind cannot be observed
a limitation of the approach is that the unconscious mind cannot be observed or measured. it also cant be tested or replicated, we cannot test these separate variables in a highly controlled and scientific setting. there is no physical evidence to even prove it existence, therefore freuds focus on the unconscious mind is a weakness of the approach
A03 - psychodynamic - subjectivity
subjective data is formulated by freuds own opinions and ideologies and interpretations of different ideas, there is no objective data or empirical evidence that can back up the psychodynamic approach
A03 - psychodynamic - deterministic
theory is considered to be deterministic, this is because freud believed that in terms of human behaviour there was no such thing as an accident, therefore this denotes that everything we say is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning. the psychodynamic approach explains all behaviour even accidents as determined by unconscious conflicts therefore we have no free will
A03 - psychodynamic - unscientific
behaviourist approach would criticise the data collection method of the psychodynamic approach, the behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured, and measures this in controlled lab settings. meanwhile the psychodynamic approach has untestable concepts, so between these two concepts we have a clear difference in science
