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CPCE > Research And Program Evaluation > Flashcards

Research And Program Evaluation Flashcards

1
Q

What is positivism?

A

And objective truth exists and can only be understood if directly observable or measurable. It is closely tied to quantitative research

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2
Q

What is post – positivism?

A

Shares many of the characteristics of positivism, such as the idea that there is a universal truth but the parts by saying that this truth can only be approximated because of inherent error’s present when measuring reality. The concept of measurement error in terms of validity and reliability is emphasized. Post positivism tends to be more prevalent and quantitative research designs.

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3
Q

What is constructivism?

A

Also known as interpretivism, it differs from both positivism and post positivism because it contends that there are multiple realities or perspectives for any given phenomenon. Truth differs for individuals and is an internal manifestation, as opposed to positivism and post positivism, which exerts the truth is external to the individual. Used in many of today’s qualitative qualitative research methods.

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4
Q

What is the critical /ideological paradigm?

A

It centers on researchers taking a proactive role and confronting the social structure and conditions facing oppressed or underprivileged groups. It’s tied to qualitative research design.

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5
Q

Which study more than any other, led to construction of the Belmont report and hastened the call for informed consent, right to withdraw, and guidelines for use of deception in research studies?

A

The Tuskegee syphilis study

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6
Q

What was the Willowbrook study?

A

When a school for children with mental disabilities got informed consent from parents to enroll their children and inject them with the hepatitis virus. The parents were never informed of their right to decline the injection for their children, nor were they told a long time effects of hepatitis

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7
Q

What was the Jewish chronic disease hospital study?

A

healthy and unhealthy patients were injected with live cancer cells. Participants never gave informed consent and were not told they were being injected with cancer cells.

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8
Q

What was the Milgram obedience study?

A

Milligram was investigating blind obedience and used deception without debriefing. The use of shocks was central to this study.

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9
Q

What was the Belmont report in research ethics?

A

It held researchers to standards that we would consider ethical today

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10
Q

What is the Nuremberg code?

A

A set of ethical principles for research using humans guarantees research participants choice to be involved in a research study and the right to terminate their participation at anytime.

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11
Q

What is title 45 (CFR) code of federal regulations 46?

A

It outlines research participants rights and researchers responsibilities in conducting research

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12
Q

What is an institutional review board?

A

Any institution receiving federal funding must sponsor an IRB in order to approve proposals to conduct research with human subjects. It consists of five members.

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13
Q

What are some of the general current guidelines for applying to an institutional review board?

A

Proposals must typically outline who the participants will be, how they will be sought, what risks participants may face, how those risks will be mitigated, and compliance with informed consent practices.

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14
Q

What is a variable?

A

A construct that has at least two levels or categories and, therefore, can vary.

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15
Q

What is an independent variable (IV)?

A

A construct that is manipulated or controlled in some way.

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16
Q

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

A

The outcome variable that is influenced by an independent variable

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17
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Other variables that could affect the dependent variable

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18
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A special case of extraneous variables that the experimenter has not controlled for in the research design but that also affects the dependent variable. So the independent variable and a confounding variable may create change at the same time.

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19
Q

What is a research question?

A

A statement that identifies what a research study hopes to examine

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20
Q

What are the three major types of research questions?

A

Relational research questions

Descriptive research questions

Causal research questions

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21
Q

What do relational research questions do?

A

They examine the relationship between variables.

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22
Q

What do descriptive research questions do?

A

They examine and describe what already exists.

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23
Q

What to causal research questions do?

A

They attempt to determine the cause and effect relationship among variables.

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24
Q

What is a research hypothesis?

A

A testable, concise statement involving the expected relationship between two or more variables.

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25
Q

What are the three types of hypotheses?

A

Research hypothesis,

null hypothesis,

alternative hypothesis

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26
Q

What is the difference between a nondirectional hypothesis and a directional hypothesis?

A

A nondirectional hypothesis does not show whether there is a positive or a negative relationship between two or more variables.

Whereas a directional hypothesis shows that there is a positive or negative relationship between two or more variables.

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27
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

(H0) A statement that there is no relationship between an IV and DV.

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28
Q

What does it mean to reject a null hypothesis?

A

It means you are supporting the theory that generated the research hypothesis.

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29
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A

It is developed in order to be eliminated and addresses the question “what else could be causing the results?”

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30
Q

What is hypothesis testing?

A

Involves the decision making process of determining if the null hypothesis is to be excepted or rejected.

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31
Q

What is the significance level in hypothesis testing?

A

It is a threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis, with the values associated with Alpha (typically .001, .01, or .05)

32
Q

What is statistical significance in the hypothesis testing?

A

Refers to the cut off point (or critical value). Any value that exceeds the cut off point will be noted as statistically significant.

33
Q

When is a null hypothesis rejected?

A

If the P value is less than or equal to the significance level.

A helpful pneumonic might be – if P value is low HO must go.

34
Q

What are the two types of errors associated with hypothesis testing?

A

Type I error and Type II error.

Type I error - occurs when a decision is made to reject a null hypothesis that null hypothesis is in fact true.

Type II error - occurs when a decision is made to retain a null hypothesis that should have been rejected because the null hypothesis was indeed false.

35
Q

What is power in hypothesis testing?

A

It is a term related to errors and hypothesis testing, and refers to the likelihood of detecting a significant relationship between variables when one is really there.

36
Q

Quantitative sampling can be classified into two different ways. what are they?

A

Probability sampling and non-probability sampling

37
Q

What is probability sampling?

A

Sampling a known population

38
Q

What is nonprobability sampling?

A

It is more common in counseling research and typically involves accessing samples of convenience

39
Q

What are the different types of probability sampling methods?

A

Simple random sampling

Systematic sampling

Stratified random sampling

Cluster sampling

Multistage sampling

40
Q

What is simple random sampling?

A

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

41
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Every nth element is chosen

42
Q

What is stratified random sampling?

A

A population is divided into subgroups based on important characteristics, and the counselor draws randomly from the subgroups. The degree of sampling per subgroup can be reflective of actual percentages in a population or may be the same sample size per subgroup.

43
Q

What is cluster sampling?

A

The counselor identifies existing sub groups and not individual participants.

44
Q

What is multistage sampling?

A

Is common in cluster sampling procedures that provide better selection controls.

45
Q

What are the different types of nonprobability sample and methods?

A

Convenience sampling

Purposeful sampling

Quota sampling

46
Q

What is convenience sampling?

A

This is the most common sampling method. A counselor selects and easily accessible population that most likely does not fully represent the population of interest.

47
Q

What is purposeful sampling?

A

When a counselor selects a sample from a population based on who will be most informative about a topic of interest. Participants are selected because they represent needed characteristics.

48
Q

What is quota sampling?

A

This method is similar to cluster and stratified sampling. However there is no randomization. The counselor simply draws the needed number of participants with the needed characteristic from the convenience sample.

49
Q

What is randomization in regards to sampling methods?

A

It helps to maximize the credibility and generalizability of a studies findings.

50
Q

What are the two things involved in randomization of sampling methods?

A

Random selection - involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random selection is closely related to external validity.

Random assignment - involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as a treatment or control group. Random assignment helps to ensure that groups are equal and that any systematic group differences are due to chance. It is closely related to internal validity.

51
Q

What are the three types of Control groups commonly used in counseling literature?

A

Wait list control group – individuals who are awaiting treatment but not receiving any treatment.

Placebo controlled group – individuals who receive some treatment that will not affect the dependent variable

Treatment as usual control group – individuals who receive whatever treatment they would ordinarily receive if they sought treatment but do not receive the special treatment under study.

52
Q

What is a blind study?

A

The participants are not aware of the condition to which they have been assigned

53
Q

What is a double-blind study?

A

Neither the researcher nor the participant knows if the participant belongs to the experimental group or the control group. This helps to combat subjective bias by both the researcher and the participant.

54
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The notion that changes in the dependent variable are due to the effects of the independent variable. The degree to which extraneous variables can be controlled strengthens the studies internal validity.

55
Q

What are the threats to internal validity?

A

history

Selection

Statistical regression

Testing

Instrumentation

Attrition

Maturation

Diffusion of treatment

Experimenter effects

Subject effects

56
Q

What is history as an internal validity threat?

A

Extraneous incidents occurred during the research

57
Q

What is selection in regards to an internal validity threat?

A

Group differences exist before the intervention due to a lack of random assignment.

58
Q

What is statistical regression in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Scores of participants who were selected because of their extreme score on independent variable are affected

59
Q

What is testing in regards to an internal validity threat?

A

The test itself has an impact on individuals, particularly when pre-tests are involved.

60
Q

What are practice effects, also known as memory effects, in regards to testing?

A

Participants know what to expect and learn something from a pre-test that helps to improve their performance on future tests.

61
Q

What is instrumentation in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Changes in the instruments affect results. For example paper and pencil, computerize, mechanized device, evaluator.

62
Q

What is attrition in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Participants drop out of a research study. This risk is especially high for a longitudinal studies.

63
Q

What is maturation in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Changes in a participant over time affect the dependent variable.

64
Q

What is diffusion of treatment in regards to internal validity threats?

A

The effects of an intervention or felt by those in another group. An example of this would be when two counseling groups at the same agency discuss the treatments each is receiving.

65
Q

What is experimenter effects in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Bias of the investigator influences participant responses. Some of the well known effects include the halo effect and the Hawthorne effect.

66
Q

What is the halo effect?

A

The professional counselors subjective, usually positive and initial, perceptions of the participant are generalized to other traits and characteristics

67
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

The presence of the investigator affects participant responses independent of any intervention. This is sometimes called reactivity.

68
Q

What are subject effects in regards to internal validity threats?

A

Participants change their behaviors or attitudes based on their understanding of their role as participants. Participants may pick up cues, known as demand characteristics, from the researcher, or research setting, that motivate them in certain ways.

69
Q

What is external validity and research studies?

A

Refers to the ability to generalize the results of a study to a larger group.

70
Q

What are the two types of external validity?

A

Population external validity – involves the population to which one can generalize.

Ecological external validity – involves the conditions or settings to which one can generalize.

71
Q

What are some external validity threats?

A

Novelty effects

Experimenter effect

History by treatment effects

Measurement of the dependent variable

Time of measurement by treatment effect

72
Q

What is novelty effect in regards to external validity threats?

A

A new treatment produces positive results just because it is novelty participants.

73
Q

What is history by treatment effect in regards to external validity threats?

A

And experiment is conducted in a particular time period with contextual factors that cannot be duplicated easily in another setting.

74
Q

What is measurement of the dependent variable in regards to external validity threats?

A

It is similar to the instrumentation threat for internal validity threats, and is the effectiveness of a program that may depend on the type of measurement used in the study.

75
Q

What is the time of measurement by treatment effect in regards to external validity threats?

A

Timing of the administration of a post test may influence the post test results

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