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Research Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the steps in sociological research?

A
  1. Reviewing existing literature.
  2. Developing research questions, aims or hypothesises.
  3. Choosing a research method or methods.
  4. Carrying out a pilot study.
  5. Selecting a sample.
  6. Collecting the data.
  7. Analysing the data.
  8. Evaluating the research.
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2
Q

What is literature?

A

Written information.

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3
Q

What is a literature review?

A

A sociologists will read any available literature before researching a particular topic. This information will be specific to an area or topic.

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4
Q

Why do sociologists carry out a literature review?

A

To become familiar with the key concepts.
To spot any gaps in the literature.
To identify research questions. That have not been answered or ask new questions.

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5
Q

What is a research aim?

A

What the researcher plans to investigate. It gives a clear focus to the study.

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6
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A hunch or informed guess. Usually written as a statement that can be tested and then either supported by evidence or refuted (proved wrong).

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7
Q

What is a source of idea for sociological research?

A

Personal lives and experiences.

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8
Q

What do researched develop their research questions, aims and hypotheses from?

A

A previous study
Their review of existing literature
New developments in technology
Their own personal interests or experiences
A pressing social problem such as poverty, racism or hate crime.

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9
Q

What are the advantages of carrying out a literature review?

A

To spot any gaps in a previous topic.
-likely to receive funding from finding bodies as it will bring in new information.
It will help to identify a topic to study as it shows which areas have not yet been covered.

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10
Q

What do positivists believe?

A

The only way to obtain knowledge about the world is through scientific methods.

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11
Q

What research methods do positivists prefer?

A

Quantitative

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12
Q

What data to positivists collect?

A

Quantitative

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13
Q

What do interpretavists believe?

A

That the subject matter of sociology - people- is completely different from that of natural sciences.

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14
Q

What research methods do interpretivists prefer?

A

In depth interviews and participant observation.

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15
Q

What methods/results do interpretivits prefer?

A

Qualitative.

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16
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale trial run carried out before the main research.

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17
Q

What can a pilot study help discover?

A 
Any leading questions 
Shows any repetitive questions 
Makes the study more effective
Helps to identify and overcome any problems. 
Saves money.
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18
Q

What is a sample?

A

A subgroup of the populations selected for study.

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19
Q

What are generalisations?

A

General statements or conclusions that apply not only to the sample but also to the population.

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20
Q

What is an unrepresentative sample?

A

A sample that is not typical of the wider population.

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21
Q

What is a representative sample?

A

A sample that is typical of the wider population.

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22
Q

What is a sampling frame?

A

A full list of all the members of the population e.g. a school register.

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23
Q

What is the population?

A

The particular group under study from which the sample is selected.

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24
Q

What is simple random sampling?

A

Pulling names out of a hat. Sociologists tends to number all the names in the sampling frame then get the computer to randomly select the number.

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25
Q

What is systematic random sampling?

A

Selecting names from the sampling frame at regular intervals so there is a regular pattern. Selecting the nth name in a sampling frame.

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26
Q

What is stratified random sampling?

A

The sampling frame is divided into strata (layers). A random sample is then taken from each stratum.

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27
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

This is used if the sampling frame is difficult to obtain or doesn’t exist. The researcher will identify a person with characteristics they are interested in. They will ask the person to introduce themselves to others with similar characteristics.

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28
Q

What is quota sampling?

A

The interviewer finding people who fit into particular categories. Eg selecting men and women under the age of 25.

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29
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

The sample is selected according to a known characteristic eg being a head teacher, all students of Nepalese heritage.

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30
Q

What is a sampling method?

A

How you get the group of people you want to study.

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31
Q

What is data analysis?

A

Interpreting or making sense of the data collected during research and summarising the main findings or results.

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32
Q

What is primary data?

A

When data is collected using one or more methods from a range of research techniques.

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33
Q

What are sources of primary data?

A

Questionnaires
Structured interviews
Participant observation.

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34
Q

What is secondary data?

A

When data is collected by other people and the data already exists.

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35
Q

What are sources of secondary data?

A

Existing research by other sociologists.
The mass media eg newspapers
Personal documents eg letters or diaries.

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36
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data presented in numerical form.

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37
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data presented in visual or verbal form.

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38
Q

Give examples of primary qualitative data.

A

Verbatim (word for word) accounts from research participants.

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39
Q

Give an example of secondary qualitative data.

A

Mass media eg newspapers.

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40
Q

Give examples of primary quantitative data.

A

Questionnaires.

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41
Q

Give an example of secondary quantitative data.

A

Official statistics on police recorded crime.

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42
Q

Define evaluate?

A

To judge or determine the significance, worth or quality of something.

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43
Q

How do sociologists evaluate their research during the research?

A

Present conference papers on their work to their peers

Submit articles on work in progress to journals.

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44
Q

How do sociologists evaluate their research once their research is complete?

A

Peer reviews - acts as a form of quality control - can amend before resubmission.
The journal reviews also provide feedback.

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45
Q

What is validity?

A

The research actually measures what it set out to examine.

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46
Q

What is reliability?

A

The same results are obtained a second time using the same methods.

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47
Q

What is representativeness?

A

The organisation or people they study represents a larger group so that the findings can apply to the larger population.

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48
Q

What are generalisations?

A

A general statement that not only applies to the sample but to the broader population that the sample represents.

49
Q

What are research ethics?

A

Sociologists must carry out their research to a highly ethical standard.

50
Q

What are social surveys?

A

Involves collecting data from a large number of people, usually through questionnaires or structured interviews.

51
Q

What do surveys consists of?

A

Pre set questions that are standardised. This means that each respondent answers an identical set of questions, presented in exactly the same order.

52
Q

How can self competition questionnaires be delivered?

A

Postal
Via email
Hand-delivered.

53
Q

What are closed questions? (Fixed choice)

A

Requires respondents to choose between a number of given answers.

54
Q

What are open ended questions?

A

Enables the resplendent to put forward their own answers rather than choosing a response from several pre-set answers.

55
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?

A

As - easy to analyse and display data

Dis - limited response

56
Q

What considerations are needed for closed questions?

A

All possible answers are anticipated in advance the questions are carefully worded so that their meaning is perfectly clear.

57
Q

Advantages and disadvantages is open-ended questions?

A

Ad - gives detailed information.

Dis - difficult to put in numerical form or convert into statistics.

58
Q

What are the two types of social surveys?

A

Structured interviews

Questionnaires.

59
Q

Advantages of postal questionnaires?

A

Relatively cheap
Which and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information.
Researcher is not present so the participant may be willing to answer sensitive questions.
Questions are standardised so replication is possible. - researchers can check whether the findings are reliable.

60
Q

Disadvantages of postal questionnaires?

A

Interviewer is not present to clarify the questions, so respondents may misunderstand.
You can be sure if the right person completed the questionnaire, a group of people may have worked on it together.
Unsuitable for some populations eg homeless or people with literacy problems.
Closed questions do not allow the resplendent to develop their answers.
The response rate is shaky low in comparison to the total numbers of questionnaires distributed.

61
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Questionnaires delivered by person or by telephone. Like questionnaires, they are also based on a standardised interview schedule.

62
Q

What is the job of the interviewer in a structured interview?

A

Asks the questions but does not prove beyond the basic answers required.
The interviewer is absolve to clarify points and questions if necessary.

63
Q

Advantages of structured interviews?

A

The interviewer can ensure all relevant questions and sections are fully completed.
Due to the standardised questions, other researchers can replicate the interview to check reliability.
As the questions are standardised any differences between the respondents answers are revealing real differences.
Easily comparable.

64
Q

Disadvantages of structured interviews?

A

The interviewer may influence the respondents answer. Eg women may answer questions about feminism differently to men than women.
May be interviewer bias which will make the interview answers invalid. - interviewer effect.
Closes off rather than opening up new interesting topics.
Feminists believe that there is an unequal power between the interviewer and the respondents.
Acceptable answers have already been decided.

65
Q

What is the interviewer effect?

A

The interviewers gender, appearance, age or religion may influence the respondents answers.

66
Q

What is CAPI?

A

Computer assisted personal interviewing.

  • the interviewer is presents and enters the answers directly into a laptop.
  • face to face.
67
Q

What is CASI?

A

Computer assisted self interviewing.

  • When asking potentially personal or sensitive questions the interviewer gives the laptop to the respondent to input their answers.
68
Q

What is CATI?

A

Computer assisted telephone interviewing

  • the interviewer reads the questions int eh form of a structured interview over the telephone. They then input the answers into the computer.
69
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

In-depth qualitative interviews. There is no standardised interview schedule which makes the interview unique.

70
Q

What are semi-structured interviews?

A

The interviewer may work with an interview guide which consists of a list of questions they want to cover. They don’t have to be covered in a particular order and they can pick up on any issues the interviewee raises.

71
Q

What are the limitations of in-depth interviews?

A

Time consuming.
Expensive.
Fewer in-depth interviews can be undertaken.
Difficult to carry out successfully-some interviews may be unresponsive - require a skilled interviewer.
Affected by interviewer bias.
Leading questions or unconsciously influence.
Difficult to replicate or repeat.

72
Q

What are the strengths of in-depth interviews?

A

Develop answers.
More flexible-can clarify and clear up misunderstandings.
Explore more complex issues and it gives rich, detailed data.

73
Q

What is interviewer bias?

A

When the interviewer asks leading questions or unconsciously influences the interviewee.

74
Q

What is interview bias?

A

The interviewee gives answers that they think the interviewer will want to hear.

75
Q

What is a group interview?

A

The interviewer interviews several people at the same time. The interviewer’s role is to control the direction of the interview. Usually the responses are to the interviewer.

76
Q

What are the limitations of group interviews?

A

Need to be managed carefully
Interviewees may influence each other.
Individuals may dominate the discussion.
Unable to guarantee confidentiality due to there being more than one interviewee.

77
Q

What are the strengths of group interviews?

A

Access a wide range of views.
Rich source of information.
Generate new ideas.
People may feel more comfortable putting heir experiences forward in a group setting because they are supported by other group members.
Individuals may be recruited to partake in follow up interviews.

78
Q

What is a focus group?

A

People are encouraged to talk to one another as well as the interviewer.

79
Q

What is a cross-sectional study?

A

It questions a sample of the population on the relevant issue on one occasion. It gives a ‘snapshot’ view. It does not allow researchers to measure change in values or attitudes over time as it tells us about individuals at one particulate point in time.

80
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

It follows the same group of people over a period of time. After the initial survey or interview has taken place, follow up surveys or interviews are carried out at intervals over a number of years.

81
Q

What is a panel study?

A

A sample is surveyed in two or more occasions.

82
Q

What is a cohort study?

A

Either an entire cohort of people or a random sample of them is selected. Everyone in the cohort shared certain characteristics or experience eg all born in the same week.

83
Q

What are the advantages of longitudinal studies?

A

Allow the researcher to examine social changes over time.

Changes in individuals daily lives, experiences, behaviour, values and opinions can be identified.

84
Q

What are the disadvantages of longitudinal studies?

A

Time-consuming and expensive.
Involve my can effect how participants behave - interview effect.
Problems with maintaining contact with original people.
People may withdraw.

85
Q

What is participant observation?

A

A qualitative research method in which the researcher joins a group and takes part in its daily activities in order to study it.

86
Q

What is overt participant observation?

A

Out in the open, everyone knows they are being observed.

87
Q

What is covert participant observation?

A

Undercover, the group does not know they are being observed.

88
Q

What are the advantages of overt PO?

A

Participants are aware
Can take notes openly
Can ask open questions
More ethical

89
Q

What are the disadvantages of overt PO?

A

Researcher effect.

90
Q

What are the advantages of overt PO?

A

Only way to study some groups.
Lack of observer effect.
Acceptable as long as no harm is caused to participants.

91
Q

What are the disadvantages of covert PO?

A

May not want to blow cover.
Lack of consent=unethical.
Can’t ask obvious questions.

92
Q

What are official statistics?

A

Existing sources of quantitative data compiled, for example by government agencies such as The Home Office.

93
Q

Advantages of official statistics?

A

Relatively cheap
Easy to access
Cover many aspects of social life
In some cases, they are one of the few sources of data available on a topic.
Allow sociologists to examine trends.
Can be used with primary sources of data to get a fuller picture of a topic.

94
Q

What are the limitations of official statistics?

A

They are put together by officials so sociologists have little say on the definitions used.
Sociologists cannot check the validity of official statistics.
Official statistics are socially constructed - this means they are the outcome of decisions and choices made by the people involved in their construction. Eg statistics of violence are published as statements of fact. The victims must decide whether to report violent incidents to the police.

95
Q

What are the advantages of participant observation?

A

Allows the researcher to study a group in natural everyday settings. Less artificial.
Carried out over an extended period of time which allows the researcher to build bonds of trust. This might allow them to have access to more things they wouldn’t usually hear.
The researcher can see things from the groups perspective.
Some groups may not agree to be interviewed so covert PO methods may be the only way to study a group.

96
Q

What are the disadvantages of participant observation?

A

The researcher may find it hard to gain acceptance and develop trust.
Relatively time consuming and expensive.
The observer effect. (Overt)
If the researcher become overly-involved it would invalidate the findings.
Each study is unique so would be impossible to replicate. Therefore, it is difficult to check reliability. Consequently, it is difficult to draw conclusions or to generalise about a similar group.

97
Q

Give examples of official statistics.

A 
Birth rates 
Marriage rates 
Death rates 
Suicide rates 
Unemployment rates 
Crime rates.
98
Q

What is the census?

A

The ONS is responsible for the census in England and Wales. It is conducted every 10 years and collects information on the whole of the population.
It involves mailing a sled completion questionnaire survey to every household in England and Wales in a census year.
It is a legal requirement to complete, however in 2011 there was only a 94% completion rate.

99
Q

What are non-participant observations?

A

The researcher is like a ‘fly on the wall’. They observe a groups activities in a natural setting without taking part in them. The researcher may be present in the setting while studying behaviour or they may videotape the group instead.

100
Q

Advantages of non-participant observation?

A

The researcher can actually see for themselves how people behave in a natural setting.
Non-participant observers are less likely ham participant observers to get too drawn into the groups activities.
They may be more objective/less influences by their personal feelings about the group than participant observers.

101
Q

What are the limitations of non- participant observation?

A

More difficult for the observer to see the world through the eyes of group members if they don’t participate. Therefore, they are less likely to understand than an participant observer.

The observer effect may occur which means the group members may change their behaviour if they are aware they are being observed.

102
Q

What are the disadvantages of content analysis?

A

It can be laborious

It involves subjective judgements which may create invalid data.

103
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

How to conduct morally acceptable research.

104
Q

What is culture?

A

The whole way of life of a group of people passed from one generation to the next.

105
Q

What are social structures?

A

The parts of institutions that make up society. Eg criminal justice system.

106
Q

What are social processes?

A

Processes in society that involve interaction between individuals, groups and social structures. Eg social control.

107
Q

What are social problems?

A

Issues that need to be solved.

108
Q

What are social issues?

A

Things that may interest sociologist but don’t necessarily need to be solved.

109
Q

What are values?

A

The beliefs held by a Erwin or a social group that help to build a set of norms.

110
Q

What is a norm?

A

An informal rule that guides our behaviour in a particular situation.

111
Q

What is a social policy?

A

Important decisions made by the government that aim to improve the conditions of people living in their society.

112
Q

What are the disadvantages of content analysis?

A

It can be laborious

It involves subjective judgements which may create invalid data.

113
Q

What are non-official statistics?

A

Statistics produced by non-governmental bodies (eg banks, charities and trade associations).

114
Q

What are the strengths of using existing quantitative data for secondary analysis?

A

Saves time and money
Can be accessed easily online
High quality

115
Q

What are the limitations of using existing quantitative data for secondary analysis?

A

No control over the quality of the data

Data was not collected for the purpose of your study/research so key variables may be missing.

116
Q

Name sources of secondary qualitative data?

A 
Letters
Newspapers
Email
Journal 
Documentaries
117
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A way of dealing with qualitative secondary sources in a systematic way. Eg feminists may watch a TV show and count how many times somethings happens based on a set of pre-decided categories eg how many times a man gives a command compared to a woman.

118
Q

What are the advantages of content analysis?

A

Can be replicated as the researcher works with a set of categories - check reliability
Systematic
Generates quantitative data which can be compared statistically.

Sociology (12 decks)

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