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biology test 2 > REPRODUCTION (LECTURE 10) > Flashcards

REPRODUCTION (LECTURE 10) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of sex?

A

the sum of all structural, functional and behavioral characteristics distinguishing males, females and hermphrodites

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2
Q

What is the definition of gender?

A

culturally defined term that describes the socially constructed roles of each sex

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3
Q

What is the definition of male?

A

the sperm-producing form of a bisexual organism

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4
Q

what is the definition of female?

A

the egg-producing form of a bisexual organism

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5
Q

What is genetic sex determination?

A

In mammals, sex determined genetically by combination of X/Y chromosomes

XX are female and XY are male

  • Y chromosome causes development of male characteristics
  • XY system also found in some insects and plants
  • BUT a double copy of the sex determining
    chromosome does not always lead to a “female”
  • Birds have Z/W chromosomes: ZZ are male and
    ZW are female
  • W chromosome causes development of female
    characteristics
  • ZW system also found in some fish, crustaceans,
    insects like butterflies and moths, and reptiles
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6
Q

What is environmental sex determination?

A
  • sex produced by temperature varies in species
  • turtle (cool temps) or warm temps (produce males)

E.g. For some crocodiles and some turtles,
moderate temperatures produce males and
warm/cool temperatures produce females

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7
Q

What is the 3 types of gametes?

A
  • anisogamy
  • oogamy
  • isogamy
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8
Q

What is the difference between anisogamy, oogamy and isogamy

A

ANISOGAMY: when there are differences in gamete size or form between sexes of a species

ISOGAMY: when the gametes that fuse together are the same size

OOGAMY: a type of anisogamy with a large non- motile female gamete and a small motile male gamete

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9
Q

What happens in sexual reproduction?

A

genetic material breaks up and recombines during meiosis. Half of genetic material comes from one parent, and half from the other. Humans have a double copy of each gene, one from our mother and one from our father

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10
Q

What happens in fertilization?

A

fusion of a sperm and an egg. Fundamental part of sexual reproduction. Can occur inside or outside the body of the female

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11
Q

What happens in external fertilization?

A

Usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. Happens after sperm reaches egg and mostly occurs during spawning

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12
Q

what is the definition of spawning?

A

one/several females release eggs and male(s) release sperm in same area at the same time

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13
Q

what happens in external fertilization?

A

-Spawning triggered by environmental signals like water temperature or the length of daylight
- occurs in both vertebrates and invertebrates

  • happens in nearly all fish
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14
Q

what is internal fertilization?

A
  • occurs most often in terrestrial animals but also some aquatic animals
  • can occur by male directly depositing sperm in the female during mating
  • can occur by male depositing sperm in the environment, in a protective structure
  • female picks up sperm and deposits in her reproductive tract
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15
Q

what are 3 ways of internal fertilization?

A
  • oviparity
    -ovoviparity
    -viviparity
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16
Q

What is the definition of oviparity?

A
  • fertilized eggs are laid outside of female’s body
  • eggs receive nourishment from they yolk that is part of the egg

Example is birds

17
Q

What is the definition of ovoviparity?

A
  • fertilized eggs are kept inside the female until they hatch inside of her, or she lays eggs right before they hatch
  • embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolks

EXAMPLE: Lizards, bony fish, sharks

18
Q

What is the definition of viviparity?

A
  • young are born alive
  • obtain their nourishment from the female and are born in varying states of maturity

Examples: most mammals, some cartilaginous fish

19
Q

What is the definition of asexual reproduction?

A

reproduction that does involve the fusion of gametes

20
Q

What happens in asexual reproduction?

A

all offspring are genetically identical to parent and to one another. Occurs in prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea). Occurs in many eukaryotic (single/ multicelled organism)

21
Q

what are the four types of asexual reproduction?

A
  • fission
  • budding
  • fragmentation
  • parthenogenesis
22
Q

What is the definition of fission?

A

organism splits itself into 2 parts and regenerates the missing parts of each. Different from binary fission in bacteria. Occurs in some vertebrates, multi celled organisms.

Examples

  • E.g. Planarian flatworms separate their bodies
    into head/tail regions and then regenerate
  • E.g. Sea anemones (Cnidaria) divide in 2
    halves and regenerate
  • E.g. sea cucumbers (Echinoderms) divide in 2
    halves and regenerate
23
Q

What is the definition of budding?

A
  • outgrowth of a part of the body leads to a separation of the “bud” from the original organism and the formation of two individuals. One smaller individual is smaller than the other. Occurs in some invertebrates

Examples:* E.g. Hydras: bud forms on the tubular body of an
adult hydra, grows mouth and tentacles, then
detaches from parent
* New hydra finds its own location for attachment
* E.g. coral: bud forms that develops into an adult,
then breaks away from main body

24
Q

what is the definition of fragmentation?

A

an individual breaks into parts, which then regenerate. If parts are big enough, new individuals will regrow from each part. Can occur through accidental damage, damage from predators or acts an a natural form of reproduction.

Examples are:
* E.g. sponges, some cnidarians, turbellarians,
echinoderms, and annelids
* E.g. sea stars: a new individual can be
regenerated from a broken arm and pieces of
central disc

25
Q

what is the definition of parthenogenesis?

A
  • an egg develops into an individual without being fertilized
  • offspring can be haploid or diploid
  • occurs in invertebrates: water, fleats rotifers
  • occurs in vertebrates as well
  • may occur in response to unusual circumstances and would normally not occur in some species
  • has been observed in species when sexes were separated in zoos

examples:
E.g. Ants, bees, and wasps use
parthenogenesis to produce haploid males
(drones); diploid females (workers and
queens) are the result of a fertilized egg

26
Q

pros/cons of asexual reproduction

A

Advantages
* One individual can
produce offspring
* Large numbers of
offspring can be
produced quickly
* All offspring adapted
to a stable or
predictable
environment

Disadvantages
* In an unstable or
unpredictable
environment,
offspring are at a
disadvantage
* All are genetically
identical, so not
adapted to different
conditions

27
Q

pros/cons of sexual reproduction

A

Advantages
* greater fitness due to
genetic diversity of
sexually produced
offspring
* more offspring may
survive and reproduce
in an unpredictable or
changing environment

Disadvantages
* Only half the
population (females)
can produce the
offspring
* fewer offspring
produced compared to
asexual reproduction
Energetic costs are high (hard to find mates)
* Only half the population (females) produce
offspring
* Fewer offspring produced compared to
asexual reproduction

28
Q

What is hermaphroditism?

A
  • occurs in animals in which one individual has both male and female reproductive systems
  • can self-fertilize but usually mate with another of their species
  • both animals fertilize each other and produce offspring
  • self - fertilization is more common in non-motile animals, like barnacles and clams
  • self-fertilization usually avoided because inbreeding produces less fit offspring
29
Q

What is diversity in the environment?

A
  • sexual reproduction produces new genetic mixes in each generation
  • some variants may survive and reproduce in times of stress or rapid change but not all
  • more offspring may survive and reproduce in an unpredictable/changing environment
  • identical offspring could all be wiped out together in a catastrophe but if offspring are diverse some coulds survive
30
Q

what is the lottery hypothesis?

A
  • looks at sexual reproduction as parents playing the lotter, choosing several different numbers, and hoping a few will win
  • genetic diversity of sexually produced offspring allows variants to exploit new habitats/ecological niches not possible by parent
31
Q

what is the co-evolution hypothesis

A

proposes that sexual reproduction arose from an evolutionary interaction between a species and another species trying to exploit the first (parasite)
- host can better resist parasites if their genes recombine in each generation, but parasite genes recombine also

32
Q

Females invest more in offspring

A

Female mammals:
* Bear time and energetic expense of gestation
* Feed offspring through lactation
* Usually carry infants during lactation and
beyond

33
Q

Males invest less in offspring

A

Male mammals:
* Produce inexpensive sperm
* Expend no energy in gestation or lactation (few
exceptions)
* Rarely help females carry offspring

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