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Kaplan MCAT Biology > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

Diploid (2n) cells

A

Have two copies of each chromosome

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2
Q

Haploid (n) cells

A

Have one copy of each chromosome

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3
Q

Five stages of the cell cycle

A

G1, S, G2, M, & G0

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4
Q

What stages are collectively called interphase, and what form is the DNA in?

A

G1, S, and G2 stages

The DNA is uncoiled in the form of chromatin

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5
Q

G1 stage (pre synthetic gap)

A

Cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size

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6
Q

Restriction point (cell cycle)

A

DNA is checked for quality

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7
Q

G1 stage restriction point

A

Must be passed for the cell to move into the S stage

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8
Q

S stage (synthesis)

A

DNA is replicated

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9
Q

Chromatids

A

Strands of DNA held together at the centromere

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10
Q

G2 stage (post synthetic gap)

A

There is further cell growth and replication of organelles in preparation for mitosis

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11
Q

G2 stage restriction point

A

Must be passed for the cell to enter into mitosis

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12
Q

M stage (mitosis)

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis occur

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13
Q

G0 stage

A

The cell performs its function without any preparation for division

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14
Q

p53

A

Plays a role in the two major checkpoints of the cell cycle (G1 to S, and G2 to M)

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15
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

A

Cyclins bind to these to phosphorylate and activate transcription factors for the next stage of the cell cycle

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16
Q

Cancer

A

Occurs when cell cycle control becomes deranged, allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard to quality or quantity of the new cells produced

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17
Q

Metastasizing of cancer cells

A

Cancerous cells may begin to produce factors that allow them to escape their site and invade elsewhere

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18
Q

What does mitosis produce and where does it occur?

A

It produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells from a single cell and occurs in somatic cells

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19
Q

Prophase (mitosis)

A

The chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell, and the spindle apparatus begins to form; the kinetochore of each chromosome is contacted by a spine fiber

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20
Q

Metaphase (mitosis)

A

Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial plate)

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21
Q

Anaphase (mitosis)

A

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles

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22
Q

Telophase (mitosis)

A

The nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears, and cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells through cytokinesis

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23
Q

What does meiosis produce and where does it occur?

A

It produces up to four nonidentical haploid sex cells (gametes) and occurs in gametocytes (germ cells)

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24
Q

Meiosis

A

Has one round of replication and two rounds of division (the reductional and equational divisions)

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25
Meiosis I (reductional division)
Homologous pairs of chromosomes (homologues) are separated from each other
26
Homologues
Chromosomes that are given the same number, but are of opposite parental origin
27
Prophase I (meiosis)
The same events occur as in prophase of mitosis, except that homologues come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis
28
Tetrad
The four chromatids of the homologous chromosomes
29
Synapsis
Crossing over exchanging genetic material from one chromatid with material from a chromatid in the homologous chromosome
30
Metaphase I (meiosis)
Homologous chromosomes line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate
31
Anaphase I (meiosis)
Homologous chromosomes are segregated to opposite poles of the cell; accounts for Mendel's first law (of segregation)
32
What does Mendel's second law (of independent assortment) account for?
The recombination of genes during crossing over
33
Telophase I (meiosis)
The chromosomes may or may not fully decidedness, and the cell may enter interkinesis after cytokinesis
34
Meiosis II (equational division)
Sister chromatids are separated from each other in a process that is functionally identical to mitosis
35
Sister chromatids
Copies of the same DNA held together at the centromere
36
X chromosome
Carries a sizable amount of genetic information; mutations of X-linked genes can cause sex-linked disorders
37
Sex-linked disorders in males
Males are homozygous with respect to the unpaired genes on the X chromosome, so they will express sex-linked disorders, even if they only have one recessive disease-carrying allele
38
Sex-linked disorders in females
Women with one copy of the affected allele are called carriers
39
Y chromosome
Carries little genetic information, but contains the SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene, which causes the gonads to differentiate into testes
40
Where is sperm developed and what nourishes it?
It is developed in the seminiferous tubules and nourished by Sertoli cells
41
Interstitial cells (of Leydig)
Secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens)
42
Testes location and temperature
They are located in the scrotum, which hangs outside of the abdominal cavity and has a temperature 2-4 degrees celsius lower than the body
43
Where does sperm gain motility?
In the epididymis, and are stored here until ejaculation
44
Ejaculation
Sperm travel through the vas deferent to the ejaculatory duct to the urethra and out through the penis
45
Seminal vesicles
Contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid
46
Prostate gland
Produces alkaline fluid
47
Bulbourethral glands
Produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal
48
What is semen composed of?
Sperm and seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands
49
How many haploid sperm are produced from a spermatogonium in spermatogenesis?
Four
50
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonium -(S stage)> primary spermatocytes -(meiosis I)> secondary spermatocytes -(meiosis II)> spermatids -(maturation)> spermatozoa
51
Sperm (head)
Contains the genetic material and is covered with an acrosome
52
Acrosome
A modified Golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse to and penetrate the ovum
53
Sperm (midpiece)
Generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria
54
Sperm (flagellum)
Promotes motility
55
Where are ova (eggs) produced?
In follicles in the ovaries
56
What happens each month to an ova?
An egg is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn into the fallopian tube or oviduct
57
What are the fallopian tubes connected to?
The uterus
58
What is the lower end of the uterus called?
The cervix
59
Vaginal canal
Lies below the cervix and is the site where sperm are deposited during intercourse; birth also occurs here
60
Vulva
The external female anatomy
61
What is produced from an oogonium in oogenesis?
One haploid ovum and a variable number of polar bodies
62
Oogenesis
(At birth & arrested in prophase I) primary oocytes -(each month & arrested in metaphase II)> secondary oocytes
63
What happens if the oocyte is fertilized?
It will undergo meiosis II to become a true ovum
64
Cytokinesis in oogenesis
Uneven; the cell receiving very little cytoplasm and organelles is called a polar body
65
Zona pellucida
Surrounds the oocyte; an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain the compounds necessary for sperm binding
66
Corona radiata
Surrounds the oocyte; a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation
67
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
From the hypothalamus, causes the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
68
FSH and LH in males
FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis, while LH causes the interstitial cells produce testosterone
69
Testosterone
Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics (facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice, and changes in growth patterns)
70
FSH and LH in females
FSH stimulates development of the ovarian follicles, while LH causes ovulation; these hormones also stimulate production of estrogens and progesterone
71
Menstrual Cycle
A periodic growth and shedding of the endometrial lining
72
Follicular phase
GnRH secretion stimulates FSH and LH secretion, which promotes follicle development; estrogen is released, stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua
73
Ovulation
Stimulated by a sudden surge in LH; this surge occurs because estrogen stops having negative feedback effects at a certain threshold and begins to have positive feedback effects
74
Luteal phase
LH promotes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining; high estrogen and progesterone levels cause negative feedback on GnRH, LH, and FSH
75
Menstruation
Occurs if there is no fertilization; as estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrial lining is sloughed off, and the block on GnRH production is removed
76
Fertilization
The blastula produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which, as an LH analogue, can maintain the corpus luteum
77
What happens near the end of the first trimester?
hCG levels drop as the placenta takes over progesterone production
78
Menopause
Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone, usually between ages 45 and 55; menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise
79
Physical and physiological changes accompanying menopause
Flushing, hot flashes, bloating, headaches, and irritability

Kaplan MCAT Biology (12 decks)

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