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Kaplan MCAT Biology > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

Diploid (2n) cells

A

Have two copies of each chromosome

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2
Q

Haploid (n) cells

A

Have one copy of each chromosome

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3
Q

Five stages of the cell cycle

A

G1, S, G2, M, & G0

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4
Q

What stages are collectively called interphase, and what form is the DNA in?

A

G1, S, and G2 stages

The DNA is uncoiled in the form of chromatin

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5
Q

G1 stage (pre synthetic gap)

A

Cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size

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6
Q

Restriction point (cell cycle)

A

DNA is checked for quality

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7
Q

G1 stage restriction point

A

Must be passed for the cell to move into the S stage

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8
Q

S stage (synthesis)

A

DNA is replicated

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9
Q

Chromatids

A

Strands of DNA held together at the centromere

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10
Q

G2 stage (post synthetic gap)

A

There is further cell growth and replication of organelles in preparation for mitosis

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11
Q

G2 stage restriction point

A

Must be passed for the cell to enter into mitosis

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12
Q

M stage (mitosis)

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis occur

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13
Q

G0 stage

A

The cell performs its function without any preparation for division

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14
Q

p53

A

Plays a role in the two major checkpoints of the cell cycle (G1 to S, and G2 to M)

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15
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

A

Cyclins bind to these to phosphorylate and activate transcription factors for the next stage of the cell cycle

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16
Q

Cancer

A

Occurs when cell cycle control becomes deranged, allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard to quality or quantity of the new cells produced

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17
Q

Metastasizing of cancer cells

A

Cancerous cells may begin to produce factors that allow them to escape their site and invade elsewhere

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18
Q

What does mitosis produce and where does it occur?

A

It produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells from a single cell and occurs in somatic cells

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19
Q

Prophase (mitosis)

A

The chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell, and the spindle apparatus begins to form; the kinetochore of each chromosome is contacted by a spine fiber

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20
Q

Metaphase (mitosis)

A

Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial plate)

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21
Q

Anaphase (mitosis)

A

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles

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22
Q

Telophase (mitosis)

A

The nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears, and cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells through cytokinesis

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23
Q

What does meiosis produce and where does it occur?

A

It produces up to four nonidentical haploid sex cells (gametes) and occurs in gametocytes (germ cells)

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24
Q

Meiosis

A

Has one round of replication and two rounds of division (the reductional and equational divisions)

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25
Q

Meiosis I (reductional division)

A

Homologous pairs of chromosomes (homologues) are separated from each other

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26
Q

Homologues

A

Chromosomes that are given the same number, but are of opposite parental origin

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27
Q

Prophase I (meiosis)

A

The same events occur as in prophase of mitosis, except that homologues come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis

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28
Q

Tetrad

A

The four chromatids of the homologous chromosomes

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29
Q

Synapsis

A

Crossing over exchanging genetic material from one chromatid with material from a chromatid in the homologous chromosome

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30
Q

Metaphase I (meiosis)

A

Homologous chromosomes line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate

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31
Q

Anaphase I (meiosis)

A

Homologous chromosomes are segregated to opposite poles of the cell; accounts for Mendel’s first law (of segregation)

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32
Q

What does Mendel’s second law (of independent assortment) account for?

A

The recombination of genes during crossing over

33
Q

Telophase I (meiosis)

A

The chromosomes may or may not fully decidedness, and the cell may enter interkinesis after cytokinesis

34
Q

Meiosis II (equational division)

A

Sister chromatids are separated from each other in a process that is functionally identical to mitosis

35
Q

Sister chromatids

A

Copies of the same DNA held together at the centromere

36
Q

X chromosome

A

Carries a sizable amount of genetic information; mutations of X-linked genes can cause sex-linked disorders

37
Q

Sex-linked disorders in males

A

Males are homozygous with respect to the unpaired genes on the X chromosome, so they will express sex-linked disorders, even if they only have one recessive disease-carrying allele

38
Q

Sex-linked disorders in females

A

Women with one copy of the affected allele are called carriers

39
Q

Y chromosome

A

Carries little genetic information, but contains the SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene, which causes the gonads to differentiate into testes

40
Q

Where is sperm developed and what nourishes it?

A

It is developed in the seminiferous tubules and nourished by Sertoli cells

41
Q

Interstitial cells (of Leydig)

A

Secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens)

42
Q

Testes location and temperature

A

They are located in the scrotum, which hangs outside of the abdominal cavity and has a temperature 2-4 degrees celsius lower than the body

43
Q

Where does sperm gain motility?

A

In the epididymis, and are stored here until ejaculation

44
Q

Ejaculation

A

Sperm travel through the vas deferent to the ejaculatory duct to the urethra and out through the penis

45
Q

Seminal vesicles

A

Contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid

46
Q

Prostate gland

A

Produces alkaline fluid

47
Q

Bulbourethral glands

A

Produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal

48
Q

What is semen composed of?

A

Sperm and seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands

49
Q

How many haploid sperm are produced from a spermatogonium in spermatogenesis?

A

Four

50
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Spermatogonium -(S stage)> primary spermatocytes -(meiosis I)> secondary spermatocytes -(meiosis II)> spermatids -(maturation)> spermatozoa

51
Q

Sperm (head)

A

Contains the genetic material and is covered with an acrosome

52
Q

Acrosome

A

A modified Golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse to and penetrate the ovum

53
Q

Sperm (midpiece)

A

Generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria

54
Q

Sperm (flagellum)

A

Promotes motility

55
Q

Where are ova (eggs) produced?

A

In follicles in the ovaries

56
Q

What happens each month to an ova?

A

An egg is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn into the fallopian tube or oviduct

57
Q

What are the fallopian tubes connected to?

A

The uterus

58
Q

What is the lower end of the uterus called?

A

The cervix

59
Q

Vaginal canal

A

Lies below the cervix and is the site where sperm are deposited during intercourse; birth also occurs here

60
Q

Vulva

A

The external female anatomy

61
Q

What is produced from an oogonium in oogenesis?

A

One haploid ovum and a variable number of polar bodies

62
Q

Oogenesis

A

(At birth & arrested in prophase I) primary oocytes -(each month & arrested in metaphase II)> secondary oocytes

63
Q

What happens if the oocyte is fertilized?

A

It will undergo meiosis II to become a true ovum

64
Q

Cytokinesis in oogenesis

A

Uneven; the cell receiving very little cytoplasm and organelles is called a polar body

65
Q

Zona pellucida

A

Surrounds the oocyte; an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain the compounds necessary for sperm binding

66
Q

Corona radiata

A

Surrounds the oocyte; a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

67
Q

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

A

From the hypothalamus, causes the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

68
Q

FSH and LH in males

A

FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis, while LH causes the interstitial cells produce testosterone

69
Q

Testosterone

A

Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics (facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice, and changes in growth patterns)

70
Q

FSH and LH in females

A

FSH stimulates development of the ovarian follicles, while LH causes ovulation; these hormones also stimulate production of estrogens and progesterone

71
Q

Menstrual Cycle

A

A periodic growth and shedding of the endometrial lining

72
Q

Follicular phase

A

GnRH secretion stimulates FSH and LH secretion, which promotes follicle development; estrogen is released, stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua

73
Q

Ovulation

A

Stimulated by a sudden surge in LH; this surge occurs because estrogen stops having negative feedback effects at a certain threshold and begins to have positive feedback effects

74
Q

Luteal phase

A

LH promotes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining; high estrogen and progesterone levels cause negative feedback on GnRH, LH, and FSH

75
Q

Menstruation

A

Occurs if there is no fertilization; as estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrial lining is sloughed off, and the block on GnRH production is removed

76
Q

Fertilization

A

The blastula produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which, as an LH analogue, can maintain the corpus luteum

77
Q

What happens near the end of the first trimester?

A

hCG levels drop as the placenta takes over progesterone production

78
Q

Menopause

A

Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone, usually between ages 45 and 55; menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise

79
Q

Physical and physiological changes accompanying menopause

A

Flushing, hot flashes, bloating, headaches, and irritability

Kaplan MCAT Biology (12 decks)

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