Reproduction Flashcards
What are the classic signs of oestrous?
Female is stood to be mounted- sexually receptive to the male.
What is the fertile period?
The time, before and after, where insemination could result in a pregancy.
In what species is progesterone a measurable indicator of ovulation?
Dog
In what species is LH an indicator a measurable of ovulation?
Dogs and Cats
Why can an increase in progesterone be used to indicate ovulation in the dog?
The increase in P4 indicates luteinisation and thus immanent ovulation.
Why can LH be used to indicate ovulation?
The LH surge triggers ovulation.
You perform a rectal ultrasound on a cow:
There is an active CL, what does this mean with regards to optimum time to breed?
An active Cl means that P4 is high and therefore ovulation can not occur.
What size of a bovine follicle is likely to indicate immanent ovulation?
A follicle between 16-20mm.
A follicle will not ovulate if it is smaller than 10mm
What sized follicle would you introduce the stallion to the mare?
Typically between 35-50mm as this indicates that ovulation is likely.
What are you likely to note on rectal examination of a cow in oestrous?
That the cervix is narrow and tense. The uterus is oedematous with increased tone.
You rectal a cow and note that the: cervix is soft and flaccid, and the uterus is flaccid with reduced tone. Is oestrous likely, why?
No, as these clinical signs indicate that the cow is in the luteal phase, where progesterone is dominant.
You rectal a horse and note that the cervix is broad and soft, and the uterus is larger and more oedematous. Is this a good time to introduce the stallion, why?
Yes, as it indicates that they mare is in oestrous, where oestrogen is the dominant hormone. Therefore, ovulation is likely to occur.
What clinical signs would you expect to find when rectalling a horse in the luteal phase?
Cervix: hard and narrow
Uterus: smaller with increased tone
Because progesterone is dominant.
What is the key notifiable disaese in mares which relates to breeding?
Contagious equine metritis (CEM) - Notifiable
Upon clinical exam you note this on the mare:
What is this and what risks are associated with it?
Poor vulval conformation (sloping vulva). The vulva sits at an angle that is more likely to trap faeces and gas. This makes an acending infection more likely. Greater risk of (endo)metritis.
What are the optimum pregancy dignostic indicators of the cow, and at what day can they be done at?
- Transrectal ultrasound - Day 28
- Transrectal palpation - Day 35
- Transrectal ballotment of foetus - Day 50
What are the optimum pregnancy diagnostic indicators of the ewe, and at what day can they be done at?
- failure to be raddled - Day 16-19
- Transabdominal ultrasound - Day 30
- Foetal pulse detector with doppler ultrasound - From Day 80
What are the optimum pregnancy diagnostic indicators of the sow, and at what day can they be done at?
- Failure to return to oestrus - day 18-24
- Transabdominal B-mode ultrasound - from day 20
- Elevated plasma progesterone - day 22-24
What are the optimum pregnancy diagnostic indicators of the mare, and at what day can they be done at?
- Failure to return to oestrus - day 18-24
- Transrectal ultrasound from day 12 (15 common)
- Transrectal palpation from day 21
- Plasma equine chorionic gonadotrophin from day 60 – 120
What are the optimum pregnancy diagnostic indicators of the bitch, and at what day can they be done at?
- Transabdominal ultrasound - from day 25
- Plasma relaxin - from day 25
- Radiographic examination - from day 45
What are the optimum pregnancy diagnostic indicators of the queen, and at what day can they be done at?
- Transabdominal ultrasound - from day 25
- Plasma relaxin - from day 25
- Radiographic examination - from day 45
What can not be used to diagnose pregnancy in the bitch?
A lack of return to oestrous
Elevated plasma progesterone.
What techniques may be used to examine the accessory glands?
– Semen collection
– Rectal palpation
– Radiographic (often including positive contrast)
– Trans-rectal or trans-abdominal ultrasonography
– Lavage techniques
What is the submission rate?
The percentage of cows served.
What is a true hermaphrodite?
The karyotype is more often
XX. Histological evidence of ovarian and testicular
tissue (E.g. ovotestis). Ambiguity of external or
internal genitalia or both.
What is a male pseudohermaphrodite
The karyotype is XY. The gonads are recognisable as testis. Incompletely masculinised and ambiguous external and internal genitalia
What is a female pseudohermaphrodite
The karyotype is XX. Feminine internal genitalia, masculinised external genitalia.
Outline a potential cause of epididimitis and why it is significant.
Brucella ovis - notafiable
What is conception failure?
The failure of fertilisation:
Mistiming of mating
Ovulation failure/delay
Male infertility
What is embryonic death?
Death after fertilisation
What species is early preganacy loss uncommon?
Cats, Dogs and Sheep
Ouline some cuases of failure to establish pregnancy in cows.
Conception failure assosiated with: metalbolic stress or ovaian pathology.
Failure to detect oestrous
Mis-timing of AI
Outline some of the causes of embryo mortality in cows?
Failure to secrete materal recognition hormone.
Outline some causes of failure to establish pregnancy in sows.
Seasonal affects- decreased in summer/autumn
Ovulation failure: stress/pathology
Genetics
Infectios causes: parvoviris (PPV)
Nutrition
Outline some causes of failure to establish pregnancy in mares.
Age of the horse
Haemorrhagic anovulatory follicles
Uterine pathology
Infectious causes: CEM
Stress
Outline the clinical use of GnRH.
- As part of OvSynch
- Hasten ovulation by inducing LH surge
- Force ovulation/luteinisation of cyctic structures
- Measure sex steroid response
Outline the long term clinical use of GnRH.
- Initial stimulation, follwed by down reculation and thus supression of HPG axis.
- Control/supress oestrous behaviour
- Controls fertility in male dogs (prevents breeding)
Outline the clinical use of FSH/LH?
Induce superovulation
and other similar treatments to GnRH. They are used much less.
Outline the clinical use of progesterone.
- Vaginal (PRID/Sponges): Induction of oestrous. Synchronisation upon withdrawal.
- Depo: prevention of oestrous in bitches.
- Oral: prevention/suppression of oestrous in bitches and prevention/induction/suppression in mares.
Outline the clinical use of a progesterone receptor antagonist.
Termination of pregnancy
Outline the clinical use of oestrogen.
Urinary incontinence in the bitch.
Outline the clinical uses of PGF2a
- Termination of luteal phase to synchronise oestrus
− Induction of abortion
− Induction of parturition
− Ecbolic effect (contractions)
Outline the clinical uses of prolactin inhibitors.
- Removes support for CL (prolactin)
- To end the luteal phase
- Terminate pregnancy
- Treat pyometra
- Reduce milk production and behaviour of pseudopregancy
- To reduce milk after weaning.
Outline the clinical uses of melatonin.
Hasten onset of cyclicity in sheep.
Outline the clinical uses of oxytocin.
- Initiation of uterine conractions- to aid parturition.
- Promotion of involution of post-parturient uterus
- Aid passage of retained placenta
- Promotion of milk let-down in agalactia
Outline the clinical use of GnRH/hCG in males.
For testing for presence of a testis.
Depot GnRH for suppression of HPO axis (reduce male behaviours)
Outline the clinical use of progesterone in males.
Reduction on testosterone production
Outline the OvSynch protocol
Day 0 - GnRH
Day 7 - PGF2a
Day 9 - GnRH
Day 10 - AI (16-20hrs later)
Outline the OvSynch with P4 protocol.
Day 0 - Insert PRID and inject GnRH
Day 7 - Remove PRID and inject PGF2a
Day 9 - GnRH and AI
In what type of animal would the OvSynch and P4 protocol be used
Cycling and non-cycling cows
Outline the P4 and PGF2a protocol
Day 0 - Insert PRID
Day 7 - Remove PRID and inject PGF2a
Day 10 - 1st AI
(Day 10.5 - If single AI only)
Day 11 - 2nd AI
State the clinical treatment of a cow in anovulatory anoestrus.
OvSynch with P4
Outline the clinical treatment for cyctic ovarian disease.
Follicular phase: GnRH/hCG
Luteal phase: PGF2a
OvSynch - Either!
Outline the clinical treatment for persistent CLs.
PGF2a
List the advantages of surgical nuterining in females.
– Reduction in the incidence of mammary neoplasia
– Prevention of uterine disease including CEH, pyometra and uterine neoplasia
– Prevention of ovarian disease including neoplasia
– Prevention of (pseudo)pregnancy
List the disadvantages of surgical nuterining in females.
– Increased incidence of some neoplasia (osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma)
* In some breeds there is a clear relation the longer that ovaries or testes are present the
lower this risk
– Increased incidence of urinary incontinence in dogs?
– Changes in coat texture?
– Tendency to gain weight?
– Changes in behaviour
Describe the best timing for female sterilisation.
3 months after oestrous or 3 weeks post oestrous.
Prevents pseudopregnancy
Outline the three types of female surgical nutering and which is the most common in the UK.
- Ovariohysterectomy (UK most common)
- Ovariectomy (Lap spays)
- Hysterectomy
When should queens be spayed?
Anytime apart from oestrus as the tract is more vascular and friable.
Outline the surgical techniques for castration
Open
Closed
Modified
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the open technique.
Rapid, effective observation of vasculature, allows good drainage, may be useful when conditions likely to be contaminated,
Herniation risk increased
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the closed technique.
Rapid, does not allow observation of vasculature but effective haemostasis if surgical
field controlled, peritoneal contamination minimised, herniation risk reduced
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the modified technique.
More time consuming, allows good haemostasis and surgical closure but only if surgical conditions are guaranteed clean, herniation risk reduced
Outline the methods for castration of the cat
- Open following twisting and traction
- Open following ligation
- Open following auto-ligation
Outline castration options for the calf
Elastication (first 7 days)
Crushing
Outline castration options for the bull.
Surgical (open)
Use of emasculators
Outline castration methods for the pig.
Surgical - open, no ligature or emasculation.
When is the optimum time for castration in the dog.
After 12 months
Outline complications associated with surgical neutering.
- Anaesthesia related
- Bleeding
- Damage to other organs
Outline complications during the recovery associated with surgical neutering.
- Anaesthesia related
- Bleeding
- Herniation of omentum in stallion
- Eventration in the stallion
Outline immidiate complications associated with surgical neutering.
- Wound related problems (infection, breakdown etc)
- Scrotal haematoma
Outline long term complications associated with surgical neutering.
- Surgical materials left inside animal
- Pyogranuloma
- Incomplete removal of the gonads
- Incontinence in the bitch
- Increased risk of other diesases
- Body conformation changes
Outline the anatomical causes of in/subfertility in females.
Congenital deformation
Outline the physiological causes of in/subfertility in females.
Ovarian pathology
Uterine infection
Failure to establish pregnancy
Outline the management causes of in/subfertility in females.
Nutrition
Oestrus detection
Genetics
Timing of mating
Expectations
Stress
Define fertile
Capable of producing offspring
Define sterile
Absolute inability to produce offspring
Define infertility
a factor of the breeder’s expectations of the outcome following a mating
Outline the abnormalities that affect male fertility.
- Abnormalities of coitus
- Failure of fertilisation
Outline the common abnormalities of coitus
– Immaturity and inexperience
– Inability or unwillingness to mount
– Inability to achieve intromission
– Haemospermia
Outline the common reasons for failure of fertilisation. (male)
– Testicular disease
– Sperm abnormalities (may be associated
with gross testicular or epididymal disease)
– Epididymal lesions
– Accessory gland disease
Outline the common reasons for failure to achieve intromission.
- Failure of erection
- Penile deviations
- Penile trauma
- Preputial abnormalities
Outline what happens if fetal death occurs at day 160 (cow).
Possible mumification as the CL is still active.
However, bateria/inflammation could cause the release of prostaglandin and cause abortion.
Outline what would happen if fetal dealth occurs at day 260 (cow)?
Expulsion as there is no CL. The L-P shift occurs between days 210-250
What would occur if embryonic death occured at day 80 (cow).
Reabsorption or possible pyometra. As fetal mineralisation does not occur until day 90.
Outline the non-infectious causes of embryonic and fetal death.
– Genetic abnormalities
– Uterine disease (not able to form effective placenta)
– Stress (nutritional, heat, other)
– Maternal illness
– Nutritional phytotoxins
When the L-P shift occur in the horse?
140-210 days
When does the L-P shift occur in the cow?
210-250 days
When the L-P shift occur in the sheep?
50 days
What species do not have a L-P shift?
Dog, cat, pig, goat - the CL produces P4 the whole time, so any pregancy loss will be carried until parturition.
What changes in endocrinology cause parturition?
Late term production of relaxin causes softening/dialation of cervix and ligaments.
Fetal maturation/stress casues an increase in PGF2 and a decrease in P4.
This stimulates the relsease of and lowers the threshold for effect of oxytocin which causes contractions
Outline common reasons for dystocia.
Maternal:
- Inadequate expulsive forces
- Inadequate size of birthing canal.
Foetal:
- Oversize
- Fault disposition- presentation
Outline common post-partum conditions.
- Haemorrhage
- Trauma/lacerations/contusions
- Prolapse of something
- Placental retention
- Metritis
- Recumbency / nerve damage
Outline surgical treatments for dystocia.
– Epidural anaesthesia
– Episiotomy
– Fetotomy
– Caesarean operation
Outline drug therapy for dystocia.
Oxytocin/PGF2a
Clenbuterol
Calcium
Outline treatments for dystocia
- Manipulation
- Drugs
- Surgical
- Euthanasia
What are the indications for a caesarean
- The fetus cannot be delivered by mutation and traction
- Dystocia is correctable but there is a large litter so risk of secondary inertia or dam exhaustion
- There is uterine torsion or incomplete cervix dilation that
cannot be remedied - When fetotomy would be extensive, traumatic and time
consuming - Performed as an elective procedure where there is high risk.
Outline the correct needle placement for a proximal paravertebral nerve block in cattle.
Local Anaesthetic for a c section
T13, L1 and L2 off to the side of the vertebra
Name two conditions that neonates are at high risk of?
Hypovolaemia
Hypoglycaemia
What antibodies does colostrum contain?
IgG (65-95%)
Rest: IgM and IgE
Outline the causes of FPT
Poor quality colostrum
Poor intake of colostrum (quantity/time)
Outline some common conditions assosicated with neonates.
- FPT
- Limb deformities
- Hernias
- sepsis
- Diarrhoea
- Bladder rupture
- Colic
- Pneumonia
Outline common mammary disorders.
- Diseases of the local skin or mammary skin
- Damage of the udder suspensory apparatus (dropped udder)
- Damage to the teat skin (e.g. milking machine trauma),
- Damage to the teats
- Inverted nipple
- Skin disease
- Mastitis
- Enlargement
- Neoplasia
- Agalactia
What does the TNM tumour grading system stand for?
T- primary tumour diameter
N- regional lymph nodes
M- Distant metastasis
Explain what is meant by T1, T2 and T3 scores.
T1- Diameter less than 3cm
T2 - Diameter between 3-5cm
T3 - Diameter greater than 5cm
What is meant by N0 and N1 scores.
N0 - No metastasis on histiopathology/cytology in the local nodes
N1 - Metastasis detected
What is meant by M0 and M1 scores?
M0 - No distant metastasis.
N1- Distant metastasis detected.
What would a mammary neoplasia score of T2, N1, M0 indicate
Tumour is 3-5cm, metastasis in local nodes but no distant spread.
Grade the following mammary tumour:
A 6cm tumour, with spread to local nodes and to the lungs.
T3, N1, M1
Outline the clinical treatment options for agalactia caused by failure of milk production.
Metoclopramide (prolactin agonist)
Outline the clinical treatment options for agalactia caused by failure of milk letdown.
Oxytocin
Outline the two upper urinary tract infections.
Pyelonephritis
Nephritis
Outline the mechanisms for UTIs.
Descending infection (nephritis/polynephritis)
Or ascending from urethra
Outline the common UTIs.
Ureteritis
Cystitis
Urethritis
Outline the bacteria commonly involved in UTIs.
E. Coli
Proteus Vulgaris
Strep
Staph
Enterococci
What is Amyloidosis?
Extracellular deposition of amyloid
(eosinophilic, homogeneous and proteinaceous material)
Describe nephrotic syndrome
Prolonged, severe renal protein loss.
A collection of physiological signs that indicate impared renal function. These include: proteinuria (albuminuria), hypoproteinaemia
(hypoalbuminaemia), hyperlipidaemia, generalised oedema.
How does nephrotic syndrome occur?
Damage to glomerular filtration barrier causes leak of low MW proteins into the filtrate. This exceeds the reabsorption capabilities, resulting in protein in the urine.
The decreased plasma protein levels reduce the plasma colloid pressure causing hypovolaemia. This triggers the RAAS system and release of ADH.
Outline what glomerulonephritis is.
Inflammation of glomeruli with secondary tubulointerstitial and
vascular changes
Outline common causes of glomerulonephritis
- Deposition of immune complexes
- Persistent antigenemia
- Viral infections
- Chronic bacterial infections
- Chronic parasitism
- Neoplasia
Outline causes of tubular disease/necrosis
Hypoxia - reduced O2 to kidney, tubules die
Nephrotoxicity- drugs etc destroy tubules
Outline the consequences of tubular disease.
Acute renal failure or chronic interstitial nephritis.
Outline Tubulointerstitial nephritis and the main types.
- Diseases involving primarily the interstitium and tubules
- Main types:
a. Suppurative
b. Non-suppurative
Outline what a patent urachus is and its likely complicatios.
A communication between
bladder and umbilicus that should have closed after birth.
Associated with :
- infection
- cysts and diverticulums
- Uroperitoneum in rare circumstances
Outline differential diagnoses for umbilical swellings.
- Persistent urachus
- Abscess
- Umbilical Hernia
Outline the common causes of renal failure.
- CKD
- AKI
What is AKI?
Sudden onset damage which might be:
* Reversible
* Progressive - permeant loss of nephrons.
* Rapidly fatal
* A complication
Outline possible causes of AKI.
- Poor renal perfusion (Cardiovascular disease)
- Hypoxia
- Nephrotoxins: NSAIDs, Vitamin D, grapes and anti-freeze
- Obstructive disease
- Infection
- Hypercalcaemia
- Alabama rot
What is CKD?
Presence of functional or structural changes in 1 or both kidneys for
> 3 months
Outline possible causes of CKD.
- Consequence of AKI
- Ischaemia
- Inflammation
- Auto-immune
- Unknown
What is ischaemia?
A reduction in perfusion/blood flow to a certain part of the body.
Outline biochemistry results that would indicate AKI
- Increased urea
- Increased creatinine
- Increased phosphoros
- Increased potassium (due to decreased urine output)
- Increased calcium
- Decreased calcium (ethylene glycol toxicity)
Outline biochemistry results that would indicate CKD
- Increased urea
- Increased creatinine
- Increased phosphoros
- Decreased potassium (due to increased urine output with polyuria)
- Increased calcium
- Decreased calcium (ethylene glycol toxicity)
Outline urinalysis results for CKD and AKI.
- Contextual USG
- Glucose - tubular damage (AKI)
- Protein
- Blood
Outline ureteric abnormalities.
- Ectopic ureter
- Traumatic injury to ureters
- Ureteral obstruction
Outline the causes of uroperitoneum
- Ruptured bladder - most common
- Urethral tears
- Urachal rupture (neonates)
- Bladder stones
- Trauma
Outline the clinical signs seen with uroperitoneum/ruptured bladder.
- Neurological signs
- Anuria/dribbling little urine
- Straining to urinate
- Abdominal distension
- Tachycardia
Outline the biochemistry markers for uroperitoneum/ruptured bladder.
- Hyperkalaemia
- Hyponatremia
- Hypochloraemia
- High creatinine
- Metabolic acidosis
Ouline the ultrasonographic apperance of uroperitoneum
Large amount of hypoechoic free peritoneal fluid
Outline the markers seen on abdominocentesis.
Creatinine concentration at least 2 times that of blood.
Outline the treatment of uroperitoneum/ruptured bladder.
- Drain peritoneal cavity of fluid
- Fluid therapy to correct electrolyte imbalances - isotonic saline with 5% glucose (+/- insulin)
- Broad spectrum antimicrobials - enrofloxacin or cephalexin.
- NSAIDs - carprofen, meloxicam
- Surgical Repair of the bladder
- Euthanasia
Vaginal cytology is taken from a bitch. What stage of the cycle is she in? Why?
Anoestrous - as there are many parabasal and small intermediate cells.
Vaginal cytology is taken from a bitch. What stage of the cycle is she in? Why?
Proestrus - as there are larger quantities of large intermediate (nucleated) cells and RBCs are present.
Vaginal cytology is taken from a bitch. What stage of the cycle is she in? Why?
Oestrous - as there are now large numbers of anuclear cells, and no small intermediate cells. There are also fewer RBCs
Early oestrous would be similar, however, there would be fewer anuclear cells and more RBS and nucleated cells.
Look for - RBS and anuclear cells as this is oestrous!
Vaginal cytology is taken from a bitch. What stage of the cycle is she in? Why?
Early metoestrous - as there are few RBCs, many WBCs (neutrophils), few anuclear cells, and increasing numbers of nucleated cells.
