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Biology Paper 2 > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

Haploid cells

A

Contain just 23 chromosomes

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2
Q

Sexual reproduction

A 
Male and female sex cell
Gametes fuse -> zygote
Meiosis
Inherit genes from both parents and characteristics
Won’t be identical
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3
Q

Asexual reproduction

A 
1 parent
Mitosis
No fusion of sex cells
No mixing of genetic information
No variation
Genetic material identical to parent
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4
Q

Diploid cells

A

Contain 23 pairs of chromosomes

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5
Q

Gametes

A

Sex cells
Haploid cells
Sperm and egg

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6
Q

Fertilisation

A

Egg and sperm cell = 23 chromosomes
Fuse to form 46 chromosomes -> 23 pairs
Fertilisation complete = new cell divides by mitosis, number of cells increase, cells differentiate

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7
Q

Meiosis process

A

1) Each chromosome is duplicated forming X-shaped chromosomes (46 from parent cells)
2) First division = chromosome pairs line up down the centre of the cell, pulled apart -> each new cell has one copy of each chromosome
3) Second division = chromosomes line up along centre of the cell with 23 pairs on each side and the arms of the chromosomes are pulled apart
4) Four haploid daughter cells produced = gametes

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8
Q

Reproduction in fungi

A

Asexual
Moulds rot our food and reproduce asexually
Fungal spores produced by mitosis
Two hyphae join and nuclei fuse = hypha has 2 sets of chromosomes
Undergoes meiosis = haploid spores, each with 1 set of chromosomes
Spores may produce fungi better adapted to survive the adverse conditions

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9
Q

Sexual Reproduction in plants

A

Gametes = pollen and egg produces using meiosis
Pollen reaches female parts of another flower = pollination
Once gametes fuse = seeds form
Introduces variation

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10
Q

How are flowers adapted in reproduction?

A

Adapted to attract animal pollinators (insects, birds or bats)
To carry pollen to another flower

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11
Q

Asexual reproduction in plants

A

New plants are formed even if flowers are destroyed by frost, eaten or fail to be pollinated
Disadvantage = new plants identical to parents = no variation

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12
Q

Reproduction in malaria parasites

A

Asexual and sexual
Asexually in human liver and blood cells
Drop in temperature
Mosquito triggers sexual reproduction inside red blood cells
Sexual forms develop, burst out of the blood cells forms zygote with 2 sets of chromosomes
Zygotes undergo meiosis = produce asexual parasites

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13
Q

What is DNA?

A

A polymer

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14
Q

What are genes?

A

Small sections of your DNA
Determines inherited characteristics
Codes for sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein

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15
Q

What do enzymes control in your DNA

A

Control your cell chemistry

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16
Q

What is a genome?

A

Entire genetic material of the organism

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17
Q

How does mitochondria affect our DNA?

A

Contain their own DNA

Inherit your mitochondrial DNA from your mother because it comes from the mitochondria in egg

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18
Q

What does understanding genomes help people with?

A

Understanding inherited disorders
See peoples increased risk of developing many diseases
Predict risk for each individual = make lifestyle choices to help reduce the risk
Choosing the best treatment for a patient
Evolution and history

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19
Q

What bases in the DNA always join together?

A

A and T

C and G

20
Q

What do the long strands of DNA consist of

A

Alternating sugar and phosphate sections

Attached to each sugar is a base

21
Q

What is a nucleotide?

A

Each unit of a sugar, phosphate and base

22
Q

How to make a protein

A

1) Template leaves nucleus and binds to surface of ribosome
2) Cytoplasm contains carrier molecules
3) Carrier molecules attach to the template of a specific amino acid
4) Amino acids join to form protein
5) Carrier molecules bring amino acids to add to protein chain
6) Protein detaches from carrier molecules
7) Carrier molecules detach from template and return to cytoplasm to bring more amino acids
8) Once protein shape is complete the molecules fold to form a unique shape to carry out its functions in the cell

23
Q

What happens if you change the order of the bases?

A

Alter the template resulting in a different sequence of amino acids
Changing the protein synthesised by the gene

24
Q

Describe the structure of a nucleotide?

A

A phosphate is attached to a sugar
Which consists of 4 bases
Which are A,C,T and G

25
Q

What do non-coding parts of the DNA do?

A

Switch genes on and off
Explain how we can synthesise so many different chemicals with so few genes
Affect how genes are expressed
Affects the phenotype (physical appearance)

26
Q

How is a mutation formed

A

When new genes form changes in existing genes

Mistakes made in copying the DNA for new cells as they reproduce

27
Q

What do some mutations code for?

A

Change in the amino acids alter protein folds to give a different shape
Active site of enzyme can no longer fit the substrate, loses its strength

28
Q

What is an allele

A

Each of 2 or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation, found at the same place on a chromosome

29
Q

Homozygote

A

2 identical alleles

30
Q

Heterozygote

A

Different alleles

31
Q

Genotype

A

Describes alleles present or genetic makeup of an individual

32
Q

Phenotype

A

Physical appearance

33
Q

Where does a genotype work

A

At the level of the DNA molecules to control the proteins made

34
Q

What information does a punnet square give us

A

Alleles for a characteristic carried by parents
Possible gametes that can be formed
How gametes may combine to form characteristic in their offspring

35
Q

What is Polydactyly

A

Born with extra fingers or toes

36
Q

How does someone get Polydactyly

A

Inherited from 1 parent

50% chance of passing disorder on = half your gametes will contain the faulty dominant allele

37
Q

What does cystic fibrosis affect?

A

Organs of the body

38
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

Cell membranes prevent the movement of certain substances from one side to the other

39
Q

What happens as a result of cystic fibrosis

A

Mucus made by cells becomes very thick and sticky
Organs are clogged up = stop working properly
Pancreas cannot secrete enzymes = tubes which enzymes are released is blocked
Most are infertile

40
Q

Treatments for cystic fibrosis

A

No cure
Physiotherapy = clear lungs
Antibiotics = replace enzymes in pancreas that cannot be produced

41
Q

What is cystic fibrosis caused by?

A

Recessive allele inherited by both parents
1/25 have allele
Most are unaware they have it

42
Q

Curing genetic disorders

A

No cures
Very serious and short lives
Genetic engineering = looking at replacing faulty alleles with health ones and gene replacement

43
Q

What is an amniocentesis test

A

Taking fluid from around foetus used for genetic screening

44
Q

What is chorionic villus

A

Sample of tissue for placenta

Using fetal cells to genetically screen foetus

45
Q

Carrying out screening

A

DNA isolated form embryo cells and tested for specific disorders

46
Q

Concerns about embryo screening

A

-Increase risk of miscarriage
+becoming more reliable and accurate
-can give false positive or negative test results
-have to make decision to keep or terminate pregnancy = science cannot help
-expensive
-risk to a demand character (people wants certain sex or intelligence)

Biology Paper 2 (9 decks)

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