Religion In Society Flashcards
1
Q
Falsification
A
When something is able to be proved wrong
2
Q
Why is science an open belief system?
A
Scientists set out to try to falsify existing theories, deliberately seeking evidence that would disprove them
If the evidence from an experiment or observation contradicts a theory and shows it to be false then the theory is discarded
3
Q
Why is science a closed belief system?
A
Polanyl argues that all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge claims, science is no different
4
Q
Reasons why religions is a closed belief system
A
Religion claims to have a special, perfect knowledge of the absolute truth
Its knowledge us sacred and religious organisations claim to hold it on Gods divine authority so cannot be challenged
5
Q
Reasons why religion is an open belief system
A
People have translated and edited the bible so it is not a fixed text
6
Q
What is Durkheim’s sacred and profane?
A
Sacred things are things that are set apart, special and evoke awe, fear or wonder, often surrounded by rules and rituals
The profane are ordinary, everyday things that have no special significance or deeper meaning
7
Q
What does Parsons believe about the function of religion?
A
Religion provides moral guidelines that help maintain social order
Argued that religious teachings are key to socialising individuals into a shared moral framework which influences legal systems and societal norms
8
Q
What does Bellah believe about the function of religion?
A
Introduced the concept of ‘civil religion’ where nationalistic belief systems take in religious qualities, uniting society under shared values. E.g. USA and ‘Americanism’
9
Q
What does Malinowski believe about the function of religion?
A
Religion functions to relieve the anxieties caused by life crises like death, birth, or marriage
Religious rituals like funerals help people cope with uncertainty and stress, thus maintaining social stability
10
Q
What is Weber’s view on Marx?
A
Rejected Marx’s theory that religion was a tool of capitalism
Instead he believed that religion was a force for social change
Religion is more than just an ideological tool or a response to deprivation. Religion is a social force
11
Q
What does religion do in the eyes Weber?
A
It explains good and bad fortune as divine reward or punishment. It enables people to cope with uncontrollable situations
12
Q
Economic restructionism
A
Refers to the idea that everything can be educed to economic relationships
13
Q
Disenchantment
A
Movement away from the magical explanations of the world, to the logical ones
14
Q
What do Calvinist’s believe?
A
Grid had already chosen if your going to heaven or hell
15
Q
According to Weber, what did Calvinists start?
A
Capitalism because they made the conditions for capitalism to grow
16
Q
Protestantism
A
Individualistic religion. Encourage private prayer and worship. Allowed for people to interpret religion for themselves and this was more open to social change
17
Q
Criticisms of Weber
A
Not all Calvinist countries were capitalist
Other factors were more influential- Marxists argue that slavery, colonialism, and piracy were more important features that lead to the rise of capitalism
18
Q
Views that support Weber
A
Religious ideas fuel economic and social change- Berger and Redding agree as they say we can still see this happening in societies today
Mormons are the modern day calvinists- Aldridge saw similar patterns in the Mormon community which had similar work ethic to calvinists. They promote hard work and a strain from many pleasures
19
Q
Five characteristics of Pentecostalism
A
Strong belief in biblical authority
Strong emphasis in personal ‘born again’ conversion experiences
Focus on the importance if prayer
Engagement in missionary activity
Conservative morals
20
Q
What are the conflicts between faith and feminism?
A
Perception if patriarchy
Religious justification for gender inequality
Historical resistance
Secular VS religious ideals
21
Q
What are the reasons why faith and feminism can coexist?
A
Shared commitment to justice
Historical collaboration
Faith inspired feminism
Alternative views on liberation
22
Q
Traditionalist
A
Religion is fixed and sacred
23
Q
Modernist
A
Religion is impacted by culture and therefore open to change
24
Q
How do religious organisations make women subordinate and who is the key theorist that is linked to this?
A
Mainly male dominated dispute the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations
Armstrong- sees the exclusions from the priesthood as evidence for women’s marginalisation
25
How do places of worship make women subordinate and what theorist links to this idea?
They often segregate sexes and marginalise women (e.g. sitting them behind screen while men occupy the central more sacred places). Women’s participation may also be restricted
Holm- describes this as the devaluation of women in religion
26
How do sacred texts subordinate women?
They largely feature the doings of male Gods, prophets, etc, and are usually written and interpreted by men, stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such so that of Eve who caused the fall in the Garden of Eden
27
How can religious laws and customs subordinate women and who is a theorist linked to this idea?
Many give women fewer rights than men. Many religions legitimate and regulate women’s traditional domestic and reproductive role
Woodhead- the exclusion if women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally
28
How does religion maintain capitalism?
It is an ideology that creates a false class consciousness
It is an ideological state apparatus that maintains the socio-economic inequalities in society
It encourages oriole to accept their suffering as ‘divine’ and promises them false rewards in heaven
It also sees mattering success as a sign of God’s favour and further endangers the class divide
It also quells rebellion by preventing its followers taking action as all things are seen as ‘God’s will’
It therefore maintains social control and prevents social change
In a communist society there would be no religion as there would be no ideology to disseminate
29
What is the radical feminist view on religions being a part of the system that oppresses women?
Religion is a tool that the patriarchy use to maintain their social control and for the benefit of men
Simone de Beauvoir- the second sex- men use religion to oppress and control women, created a false consciousness that women see themselves as second class citizens whilst also believing that they are being treated as equals to men
Mary Daly- language of the Father God legitimates male supremacy and oppression of women- “as God is male the male becomes God”
30
What is the liberal feminist view on religions being a part of the system that oppresses women?
Religious institutions are patriarchal as they are part if the patriarchal society. They created a ‘stained glass ceiling’ that prevents women from being liberated and empowered
Nawal El Saadawi- Islam developed in areas if the world which already had extremely patriarchal social structures
31
What is the Marxist feminist view on religions being a part of the system that oppresses women?
Religion is an ideological tool that maintains the capitalist nature of society. Religions are used to maintain women’s low status so they can continue to give their unpaid labour to the system
Nawal El Saadawi- revolutions are generally beneficial to women
32
Why would Woodhead argue that religions are not part of the system that oppresses women?
Hijabs should not be viewed as simply an oppressive symbol, but rather it can also be seen as empowering for Muslim women
Wearing a hijab can act as an assertion of power for women allowing them to reclaim authority of their own bodies while also challenging traditional gender roles by asserting their right to participate in public life without fear or shame
33
Why would Armstrong argue that religions are not part of the system that oppresses women?
Women were central to many spiritual traditions in early history
One common representation is of the Mother Goodness as a pregnant women, which places fertility as central to early spirituality
Female figured began to be written out of religion with the acceptance of monotheism
34
Why would Nawal El Saadawi argue that religions are not part of the system that oppresses women?
Female oppression in the Arab world is not caused by Islam but by the patriarchal systems that existed before Islam
Religion isn’t the direct cause of women’s oppression, instead it is the patriarchal influences that reshape religion to suit the interests of men
35
Criticisms of the Marxist view of religion
It is pessimistic as it only looks at the negatives of religion rather than the benefits
Secularisation — religion is declining in power by capitalist values are still successful
Narrow focus — only acknowledges the ideological nature and ignores the other features
Feminism — it ignores patriarchal nature of religion and its promotion of gender inequality
Christo-centric — heavily only applies to Abrahamic faiths
Religion and communism — Marx said religion wouldn’t exist in communist societies but China’s predicted to be the worlds most Christian nation by 2030
36
How does Bloch argue religion is the ‘principle of hope’?
Our dreams of a better life that contain images of utopia - images of utopia can deceive people with promises of rewards like heaven
37
What does liberation theology set out to do?
Change society, e.g. priests set out to establish support groups called ‘base communities’, and helped workers and peasants fight oppression under the protection of the church
38
What does the term hegemony mean and who uses it?
It is the ideological domination of leadership of society and is used to refer to the way that the ruling cksss use ideas such as religion to maintain social control
Gramsci
39
Arguments that believe that religion is a conservative ideology
Haleny argues that the rise of non-Christian churches is the reason Britain did not see the w/c revolution of the 18-19thC
In 2014 50% if the serving Bishops who’s schools were known were privately educated
42% of CofE bishops went to Oxbridge
40
Arguments that believe that religion isn’t a conservative ideology
CofE calls out governmental policies that promote austerity and tax avoidance. This means that they are fighting against the corporate elite
41
Church
Large organisation, often with millions of members such as the Catholic Church, run by a bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests, and they claim a monopoly of the truth
42
Denomination
Religious organisation that lies midway between churches and sects. Unlike both churches and sects, they are tolerant of other religious organisations and beliefs and do not claim a monopoly of the truth
43
Sects
Small, exclusive groups. They are hostile to wider society and expect a high level of commitment. They draw their members from the poor and oppressed and are led by a charismatic leader rather than a bureaucratic hierarchy
44
Cult
Loose-knit and usually small religious organisations spiritual groups of individuals with similar interests. They lack a sharply defined belief system and are tolerant of other beliefs. Often led by ‘practitioners’ or ‘therapists’ who claim special knowledge. Those who take part are more like clients or consumers over members
45
Key features of a church
Claim a monopoly of the truth
Usually associated with the state
Has professional clergy
46
Key features of a denomination
Works alongside other religions and usually accepting of religious pluralism
World accomplishing religious movement
47
Key features of a cult
Focused on individual spiritual development
Financial buy in
48
Key features of a sect
Claim a monopoly of the truth
Also known as world rejecting movement
Demand total loyalty and are completely exclusive
49
What are new religious movements (NRMs)?
Social movements that aim to alter existing religious organisations or establish new religious groups
50
According to sociologists, what are the three key reasons for the rise of NRMs?
Changing values
Changing social structures
Change to the role and character of religion
51
Who are NRMs appealing to?
W/c
Migrants
Women
The young
52
What do Stark and Bainbridge categorise NRMs unto?
Audience cults — low level, low commitment, no mass organisation
Client cults — larger level of commitment (financial)
Cult movements — world rejecting, massively organised, large following, high commitment
53
What are new age movements (NAMs)?
Religious practises that focus on individual spiritual growth and development. Often shared vid courses and seminars at a financial cost. They use social media to gain followers
54
What does Barker say NAMs are?
Pick ‘n’ mix
Individuals can have overlapping memberships- can go from one ‘self-religion’ to the next
55
What are the three types of religion and define them?
Constructionist = how followers define it
Substantive = define religion by its substance
Functional = what it does
56
What does Drane (post-modernist) say about NAMs?
The appeal is part if a shift towards a post modern society
People have lost faith in experts and professionals and are disillusioned with the churches failure to meet their spiritual needs so they turns to NAMs
57
What does Bruce (modernist) say about NAMs?
Growth of NAMs is a feature if the latest phase if modern society
Notes that NAMs are often softer versions of more demanding Eastern religions
58
What does Heelas (modernist) say about NAMs?
Says NAMs and modernity are linked in four ways:
A source of identity
Consumer culture
Rapid social change
Decline of organised religion
59
What are the two key characteristics of NAMs according to Heelas?
Self-spirituality — new agers seeking the spiritual have turned away from traditional ‘external’ religions such as churches and instead look inside themselves to find it
Detraditionalisation — the rejection of spiritual authority if external traditional sources. Instead it values personal experience and believes that we can discover the truth for ourselves within ourselves
60
Religiosity
refers to how religious someone is
61
How is religiosity measured?
* regular attendance ata place of worship
* identifying with a particular belief system or movement
* practicing the religion
* dedication to their belief
62
What percentage of the 2021 census clicked 'no religion'?
37%
63
What is Wilsons definition of seculariation?
The process wherby religious thinking, practices and institutions lose social significance
64
What are the issues with Wilsons definition of secularisation?
* too broad and hard to categorise
* what religions do we measure this by?
* to what degree do we measure social significance?
65
What is Bruces definition of seculariation?
Social condition manifest in a) declining importance of religions in non-religious institutions b) decline in the social standing of religious institutions
c) decline in the extent to which people engage in religious practices
66
What are the issues with Bruces definition of secularisation?
is engaging in religious practices the only way to be religious?
67
What is Weber's view of secularisation?
its a response to the rationalisation of the world. As people moved away from the mystical and magical explanations of the world religion offered, religion lost its function in the world
68
What does Davies 'believing without belonging mean'?
you believe in a religion but you don't belong to the organisation. people are more likely to believe in the essense of religion but not the creed of religion
69
Reasons for gender differences in religiosity:
Risk, socialisation and roles
* by not being religious people are risking that religion is right and they will be condemned to hell
* women are more religious because they are socialised to e more passive, obedient, and caring which are qualities valued by religions
* womens gender roles means that they are more likely to work part time or be full time careers so can organise their time to participate in religious activities
70
Reasons for gender differences in religiosity:
Paid work
* **Bruce** argues that women's religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work
71
Reasons for gender differences in religiosity:
Women and the new age
* NAMs often celebrate the 'natural' and involve cults pf healing, which gives women a higher status of self-worth
* Bruce argues that women's experience of child-rearing makes them less aggressive and goal oriented, and are more cooperative and caring
* Brown argues that New Age 'self' religions attract women recruits because they appeal to women's wish for autonomy
72
Reasons for gender differences in religiosity:
Women, compensators and sects
* Bruce estimates that there are twice as many women as men involved in sects
* Starck and Bainbridge argue that people may participate in sects because they offer compensatrs for organismatic, ethical and social deprivation
73
Reasons for gender differences in religiosity:
The pentecostal gender paradox
* pentecostal women can use the ideas such as having a ascentic (self-denying)lifestyle to combat the widespread culture of manchism in latin America
74
Reasons for ethnic differences in religiosity:
Cultural Defense
* Bruce argues that religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity in uncertain or hostile environments
* Bird notes tat among minorities, religion can be a basis for community solidarity, a means of preserving one's culture and language, and a way of coping with opression in a racist society
75
Reasons for ethnic differences in religiosity:
Cultural transition
* Bruce argues that religion can be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups in their new environment
76
Reasons for age differences in religiosity:
The ageing effect
* Voas and Crockett suggest this
* its the view that people turn to religion as they get older
* as we approach death we 'naturally' become more interested in the afterlife and are more likely to go to church
77
Reasons for age differences in religiosity:
The cohort effect
* people born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of particular events they have lived through
78
Reasons for age differences in religiosity:
Secularisation
* as religion declines in importance, each generation becomes less religious than the one before it
79
What do Stark and Hamilton say about whether religion is on its way out?
* religion wasn't very important in the past and still remains unimportant today
* this means that they suggest that society isn't becoming secular because religion was never really important
80
Why do Woodhead and Davie argue that New Age Religions are evidence against secularisation?
* new age religions appeal more to younger people
* people might belong to multiple new age religions, so not necessarily easy to measure
* new age religions are about the private spiritual growth, so cannot be recorded in the same way as traditional religions
81
How would you explain Bruces idea that capitalism is the cause of secularisation?
1. capitalism led to urbanisation - people living in close conditions and this undermined the social control the clergy had over them
2. social differentiation - state agencies have taken over the roles that religion used to play in society
3. impersonal bureaucratic rules - people now believe in the meritocracy rather than God ordering their lives
82
Religious fundamentalism
refers to the adherence to a religion's most traditional values and beliefs - a return to the basics or fundamental tenets of the faith
83
Globalisation
how society has become more interconnected across the world, economically, culturally and politically
84
What are the impacts of globalisation on beliefs?
1. increased migration
2. increased use of technology
3. spread of liberal western values
85
Why does Armstrong suggest that religion auses a rise in fundamentalism?
growth in religious pluralism causes people to return to fundamental practices to protect against imposing westernisation
86
What does Wilson suggest about globalisation and its impact on religion?
economic growth of globalisation has caused social differentiation that undermines the role of religion
87
What is cosmopolatinism?
a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with today's globalising world
88
What are the 7 features of a fundamentalist group?
* an authoritative text
* an 'us and them' mentality
* agressive reaction
* modern technology
* patriarchy
* prophecy
* conspiracy theory
89
What features of the 20th century led to the rise of fundamentalism?
* cosmopolitanism
* growing interconnectedness via media
* globalisation
* religious pluralism
* changes in the position of women
* mass migration
* economic instability
* rise of scientific thinking and rationalisation
* moral decline
* technological changes
* WW1 & WW2
90
What are some examples of fundamentalist groups?
* Wahhabism
* Westborough Baptist Church
* ISIS
91
Religion in the 21st century:
What is Hindu Nationalism?
* the worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India
* Hinduism has become a civil religion
* Hinduism has penetrated public life, so that the supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced eligion
92
Religion in the 21st century:
What is happening with religion in Iran?
* the revolution of 1979 brought the creation of the Islamic Republic, in which clerics held state poer and were able to impose Islamic Sharia Law
* during the 60s and 70s Shah of Iran's successor embarked on a policy of modernisation and westernisation. this included banning the veil and replacing the Muslim calendar
93
Religion in the 21st century:
What is happening with pentecostalism in Latin America?
* Berger argues that pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a 'functional equivalent' to Weber's protestant ethic
* Lehmann attributes the success of pentecostalism as a global religion in part to its ability to incorporate local beliefs
* pentecostalism has been successful in developing countries because it is able to appeal to the poor who make up the majority of the population, and because it uses global media to spread its message
