Crime & Deviance Flashcards
Social control
Methods used to persuade individuals to conform to the dominant norms of society
Deviance
Rule-breaking behaviour that fails to conform to social norms
Crime
Law breaking behaviour that contravenes the criminal law of a society
What does Durkheim say de two positive functions of crime are?
Boundary maintenance - crime produces a reaction from society, uniting its members in condemnation for the wrongdoer & reinforcing their commitment to the shaved norms & values
Adaption & change - all change starts with an act of deviance. There must be some scope for them to challenge and change existing norms & values, at the first instance it will inevitably appear as deviance
What does Newburn suggest crime is?
A label attached to certain forms of behaviour which are prohibited by the state, und have some legal penalty against them
What does Downs & Rock suggest about crime being a social construction?
Ambiguity is a key feature of rule-breaking, as people are frequently unsure whether e particular episode is truly deviant or what deviance is
What does Plummer say the two types of deviance are and what do they mean?
Societal deviance= forms of deviance that most members of society regard as deviant
Situational deviance= the way in which au act being seen as deviant or not depends on the context or location which it takes place
What is Merton’s strain theory?
Anomie is created by a strain between the consensus view of what people should aim for in life (goals) and the consensus view of now you should go about achieving it (means)
5 modes of adaptation
- Conformity
- Innovation
- Ritualism
- Retreatism
- Rebellion
Criminogenic
Something that leads to criminality
For A.k. Cohen, how do w/c boys suffer from status frustration?
They face a problem of adjustment to the low status they are given in mainstream society
Millers focal concerns
The distinct values that w/c boys were socialised into that mean that they are more likely than others to engage in delinquent or deviant behaviour
Strengths of strain theory
Most crime is property crime, because American society values material wealth so highly
L/c crime rates are higher, because they have the least oppertunity to obtain wealth legitimately
Weaknesses of strain theory
Takes official stats at face value which over-represent w/c crime
Marxists argue it ignores the power of the r/c to make and enforce the laws in ways that criminalise the poor but not the rich
It explains how deviance results from individuals adapting to the stain to anomie but ignores the role of group deviance
What do Cloward and Ohlin agree with Merton on?
w/c youths are denied legitimate oppertunities to achieve ‘money success’, and that theirdeviance stems from the way they respond to the situation
What are Hirischi’s four bonds of attachement?
- attachment
- commitment
- involvement
- belief
What does Hirischi say about his bond of attachment?
Those who are more likely to commit crimes are those who do not have family attchements, work commitments, get involved in school or have a clear moral code
Weaknesses of Hirischi’s four bonds of attachement
He does not really address the issue of why some members of society have secure bonds of attachment and others don’t
Marxists & feminists would point out that there is not a value consensus that benefits all members of society
Strengths of Hirischi’s four bonds of attachement
Introduces new ideas of how to prevent crime and how to achieve social order
His ideas have influenced social policy makers in that they are interested in how attchament can be promoted and deviance reduced
Cloward and Ohlin view on subcultures
Attempts to explain why different subcultural responses occur- key reasom is not only unequal access to the legitimate oppertunity structure, but unequal access to illegitimate oppertunity structures
Cloward and Ohlin’s three types of deviant subcultures
Criminal, conflict and realist
What do police use to make decisions to arrest according to Pillavin & Briar (labelling)?
Police decisions to arrest a youth were mainly based on physical cues
Officer decisions can also be influenced by gender, class and ethnicity as well as time and place
Cicourel (labelling)
Officers’ decisions to arrest are influenced by their stereotypes about offenders
Found that officers’ typifications (their commonsense theories/stereotypes) led them to concentrate on certain ‘types’
Master status
Secondary deviance is a result of societal reaction- labelling. When someone is labelled they are only seen in terms of the label- this is their master status
Deviant career
Secondary deviance is likely to provoke further hostile reactions from society and reinforce the deviant’s ‘outsider status’- this leads to a deviant career
Deviancy amplification
A term used by interactionist sociologists to refer to the way levels of deviance or crime can be increased by attempts to control it
Miller’s (functionalist) ideas on class difference in crime
L/c has developed an independent subculture with its own destinctive norms and values which clash with those of the main stream culture.
Criminogenic Capitalism (Marxist view of class and crime)
Crime is inevitable because capitalism is criminogenic
Alienation- leads to frustration and agression which leads to non-utilitarian crimes
The state and law making (Marxist view of class and crime)
Law making and law enforcerment only serve the interests of the capitalist class
CHAMBLISS argues that laws to protect private property are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy
SNIDER argues that the capitalist state is reluctant to pass laws that regulate their activities or treaten their profit
Selective enforcement (Marxist view of class and crime)
Police and courts chose who they shopuld criminalise and who they should not
W/c and ethnich minorities are criminalised while police and courts tend to ignore crimes of the powerful
Ideological functions of crime and law (Marxist view of class and crime)
The law,crime and criminals performe an ideological functions foe capitalism
Laws are occationally passed that appear to benefit the w/c and not capitalism- however PEARCE argues that such laws often denefit the r/c too by giving capitalism ‘caring’ face
What type of crime does Snider say causes more damage than ‘street crime’?
Corporate crime
Strengths of the Marxist view of crime
Useful explanation of the relationship between crime and capitalist society
It shows a link between law making and enforcement and the interests of the capitalist class
Weaknesses of the Marxist view of crime
Largely ignores the relationship between crie and non-class inequalities like ethnicity and gender
Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates
Left realists argue that marxism ignores intra-class crimes such as burglary, which cause great harm to victims
NEW CRIMINOLOGY
What is white-collar crime?
Crimes committed by employees for their own personal gain, often against the organisation for which they work
What is corporate/organised crime?
Offences commited by large companies, or inividuals acting on their behalf, which directly benefit the company and may involve increasing the company’s profits or chances of survival
Reasons for the invisability of corporate crime
- the media
- lack of political will
- the crimes are often too conmplex
- de-labelling
- under-reporting
Think Merton for one and Marxist idea for another
What are the explanations for white-collar crime and corporate crime?
- Strain theory
- Differential association
- Labelling theory
- Concequence of capitalism (Marxist view)
- Cultural criminology
What do left ralists see as the main underlying cause of crime?
Inequality
What do right realists see as the main underlying cause of crime?
The welfare state and the breakdown of informal and formal controls
How is biological differences a cause of differing crime rates and who came up with the idea?
Wilson and Hernstein
Biological differences between individuals can make some people commit more crime e.g. personality
How is inadiquate socialisation/the underclass a cause of differing crime rates and who came up with the idea?
Murray
Rising crime rates are due to the growth of the under-class whic he describes as individuals whith deviant behaviour who fail to properly socialise their children- due to welfare dependency which has expanded since the 1960s
How is rational choice theory a cause of differing crime rates and who came up with the idea?
Clarke
Individuals are rational with free will, meaning that deciding to commit a crime is a choice based on a cost-benefit calculation
What is Kelling’s ‘broken windows’ thesis?
Argues that maintaining order in neighbourhoods is crucial to prevent crime. They claim that small signs ofdisorder must be addressed immediately to stop more serious crimes frim taking root
‘Zero tollerance’ policing
The strict enforcement of laws against minor offences like prostitution and begging. It seeks to immediately crack down on any form of undersirable behaviour to maintain order and make law-abiding citizens feel safe
What do right realists believe that crime prevention should focus on?
Controlling, containing and punishing offenders. This includes measures like ‘target hardening’, increasing prison use and ensuring punishments occur swiftly to maximise their deterrant effect
Strengths of the right realist explanation of crime
- seeks to address the imediate causes of crime and provides policies for reducing the oppertunities of crime
- it has influenced gov. policy
- it recognises that crime is a real problem affecting real people with real concequences
Weaknesses of the right realist explanation of crime
- it ignores wider structural cases such as poverty
- it overstates ofenders’ rationality and how far they make cost-benefit calculations borfore committing a crime
What are the three related causes of crime for Lee and Young and what do they mean?
- relative deprivation- feeling of being deprived compared to others
- subculture- groups that develop alternative norms and values which can lead to crime
- marginalisation- the social exclusion of certain groups
Strengths of the left realist explanation of crime
- stresses the significance of victims and so produces a more rounded way of understanding criminality
- draws on theories such as Merton’s strain theory and sub-cultural theorists which means it offers a fuller explanation than most
What are the three methods of collecting infomation?
- self-report studies
- police-recorded stats (PRC)
- victim surveys
How is the biological differences between the sexes an explanation of female crime?
Women are innately different from men in ways that make them less susceptible to commit crime
How does Pollak’s Chivalry Thesis explain female crime?
Male officials in the CJS are more lenient to women as they are socialised to be gentler towards women
How does sex role theory (functionalist view) explain female crime?
- Consernedwith the socialisation of men and women to gender roles (instramental and expressive)
- Gender socialisation encourages women to adopt feminine characteristics which cause them to avode risk-taking behaviour
How does Heidensohn’s patriarchal control (feminist view) explain female crime?
females are less likely to commit crime because they are subject to closer levels of social control than men are - in the home, public, and workplace
How does Carlen explain female crime through class and gender?
female criminality was the result of rejecting socially-approved pathways for women
class deal- women who choose employment rewards for labour, given comforts of material gain, are incentives for women to not commit crime
gender deal- women who conform to traditional roles gain emotional rewards and financial security by their partner
how does Adlers liberation thesis explain female crime?
suggests that the increasing rates of female crime is due to changing gender roles and freedom from traditional norms
Hegemonic masculinity
A male identity that defines what it is it be a ‘real man’
According to Katz, what do young men learn early on in life?
That they can only show manly qualities
What percentage of murderers are men?
85%
What percentage of rapists are men?
99%
What percentage of domestic violence case are performed by men?
95%
What percentage of dating violence are men?
95%
How does the social construction of masculinity perpetuate male criminality?
Men feel as though they have to live up to the masculine qualities such as strong, respected and tough so are more likely to find themselves in situations where they commit crime
What does Messerschmidt mean by hegemonic masculinities?
Work in the paid-labour market, the subordination of women, heterosexism and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men
What does Messerschmidt mean by subordinated masculinities?
Include gay men who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, as well as l/c and some ethnicity minority men, who lack resources to do so
What are the three different forms of rule breaking between classes and ethnicities that demonstrate masculinity for youths?
White m/c youths- subordinate themselves to teachers in order to gain m/c status, leading to an accommodating masculinity in school which is different to their masculinity outside of school
White w/c youths- have less chance of educational success so their masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school
Black w/c youths- have few expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang membership and violence to express their masculinity
What societal changes have occurred in recent decades that have caused a crisis for masculinity?
Globalisation = shift in global economy = people in the west cannot get manual labour jobs which was where men could express their masculinity
What does Batchelor argue is the cause for the moral panic about girls?
Points to media depictions of young women as ‘drunk and disorderly, out of control and looking for fights’
What percentage of the population do black people make up compared to the percentage of the prison population they make up?
Population- 3%
Prison population- 13.1%
What ethnic group are underrepresented in all staged of the criminal justice process?
White
What did Phillips and Bowling find about victim surveys?
White victims may ‘over-identify’ blacks saying that the offender was black even when they are not sure
How much higher was the arrests for blacks over the arrests for white?
Arrest rate for blacks was 3x the rate for whites
In 2014 what fraction of the prison population in the UK was made up of minority ethnic backgrounds?
1/4
What do the left realists Lea and young argue about the differences in crime across ethnic groups?
Police often act in racist ways that result in unjustified criminalisation
The ethnic differences in status reflect real differences in the levels of offending by different ethnic groups
What does critical criminology argue about the differences in crime across ethnic groups?
Black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes of African Caribbeans and Asians
What is the neo-Marxist argument about the differences in crime across ethnic groups?
The ruling class are normally able to rule the subordinate classes through consent
In 2014/15 how many racist incidents were recorded by the police in England and Wales?
54,000
HOWEVER most go unreported
How does the media distort crime?
It over-represents violent and sexual crime (these crimes only make up 3% of all recorded crimes)
It portrays criminals and victims as older and more m/c than those found in the criminal justice system
It exaggerates the risk of victimisation, especially to women, white people are higher status individuals
Exaggerates police success in clearing up cases
Crime is reported as a series of separate events without structure
It overplays extraordinary crimes and underplays ordinary crimes
What is the example of a moral panic?
Mods and rockers:
Mods- smart dressed and rode scooters
Rockers- leather jackets and rode motorbikes
Media exaggerated the munger and extent of the violence
Mods and rockers were labelled negatively and associated with deviance
Globalisation
The process by which the world is becoming more interconnected
Impacts of globalisation on crime
Crime is becoming increasingly global
How has globalisation created new opportunities for crime?
Arms trafficking
Trafficking in nuclear materials
Smuggling of illegal migrants
Trafficking in women and children
Sex tourism
Trafficking in body parts
Cyber crimes
Green crimes
International terrorism
Smuggling of illegal goods
Trafficking in cultural artefacts
Trafficking in endangered species
The drugs trade
Money laundering
What do Hobbs and Dunningham call crime?
A ‘global’ system
What % of the worlds GDP did organised crime account for in 2009?
15%
Green crime
Crimes committed against the environment
Primary green crime
Crimes that result directly from the destruction and degradation of the ‘earths resources’
What are the four main types of primary green crime that South identifies?
- Crimes of air pollution
- Crimes of deforestation
- Crimes of species decline and animal abuse
- Crimes of water pollution
Secondary crime
Crime that grows out of the flouting of rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters
What does South suggest are the two examples for secondary crime?
- State violence against oppositional groups
- Hazardous waste and organised crime
What is Whites green criminology?
The idea that the proper subject of criminology is any action that harms the physical environment and/or the human and non-human animals within it
What are the four types of state crime identified by McLaughlin?
- Political crimes
- Crimes by security and police forces
- Economic crimes
- Social and cultural crimes
His is the genocide in Rwanda an example of state crime?
Civil war where 800,000 Tutsis were killed and 1/3 of the Hutus pop participated
What is Chambliss’ domestic law?
Acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state official
What is Adorno eat al’s authoritarian personality?
Includes a willingness to obey the orders of superiors without question
Punishment prevents couture crime through…
Acting as a deterrence
Providing rehabilitation
Incapacitation
Situational crime prevention
Pre-emotive approach that relies, not on improving society or its institutions, but simply on reducing opportunities for crime
Environmental crime prevention
Zero tolerance policing- instead of police merely reacting to crime, they must proactively tackle even the slightest sign of disorder, even if it is not criminal
Social and community crime prevention
Aim is to remove the conditions that predispose individuals to crime in the first place
Durkheim perspective on punishment
It reinforces social solidarity and shared values
Two types of injustice:
1. Retributive
2. Restitutive
Marxist perspective on punishment
It serves the r/c interests and defends social order
Prison system mirrors capitalist production
Positivist victimology
Three features:
1. Aims to identify the factors that produce patterns in victimisation
2. Focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence
3. Aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation
Critical victimology
Focuses on two elements:
1. Structural factory’s like patriarchy and poverty
2. The states power to apply or deny the label of victim
Patterns of victimisation: class
Poor are more likely to be victimised
Newborn and Rock- homeless are 12x more likely to experience violence than the general population
Patterns of victimisation: age
Younger are more at risk
Teenagers are more at risk than adults to offences including assault, sexual harassment, theft, etc
Patterns of victimisation: ethnicity
Minority groups are at greater risk of
Patterns of victimisation: gender
Men are more likely to be victims of violent attacks
Women are more likely to be victims of domestic violence, sexual harassment and stalking
Patterns of victimisation: retreat victimisation
If you have been a victim once your more likely to be a victim again
Secondary victimisation
The idea that in addition to the impacts of the crime itself, individuals may suffer further victimisation at the hands of the criminal justice system
