Religion in a Global Context

Question 1

Characteristics of fundamentalism

Answer 1

• Fundamentalists appeal to tradition – look back to ‘golden age’
• Return to fundamentals of faith
• Arises only where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society
• Threat – external e.g. capitalist globalization or Western culture or internal e.g. when attitudes change

Question 2

Key features of fundamentalism

Answer 2

1. Authoritative sacred text
2. ‘us and them’ mentality
3. Aggressive reaction
4. Use of modern technology
5. Patriarchy
6. Prophecy
7. Conspiracy theories

Question 3

How does modernity lead to fundamentalism

Answer 3

Davie – fundamentalism occurs when those who hold traditional beliefs are threatened by modernity

Giddens – fundamentalism is a product of and reaction to globalization (which undermines traditional social norms)
• In late modern society – individuals are faced with choice, uncertainty and risk
• Attraction of fundamentalism is the certainty it promises
• It is a retreat into answers and away from the risks of a globalizing world

Question 4

Cosmopolitanism

Answer 4

• Giddens contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism (which embraces modernity)
• Is tolerant of the views of others, changing their beliefs in the light of new information – reflexive thinking
• Requires justification by rational arguments rather than sacred texts
• Lifestyle is a personal choice rather than something prescribed
• Cosmopolitan religion emphasizes the pursuit of personal meaning

Question 5

Responses to PM

Answer 5

• Bauman – sees fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity
• PM society – brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and heightened awareness of risk (undermining old certainties of how to live)

Question 6

Castells’ responses

Answer 6

1. Resistance identity – defensive reaction of those who feel threatened
2. Project identity – response of those who are forward looking and engage with social movements

Question 7

Postmodernism - evaluation

Answer 7

1. Distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism (ignores hybrid movements)
2. They are ‘fixated on fundamentalism’ and ignore other important developments e.g. how globalization is affecting non – fundamentalist religions
3. Giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring other important developments
4. Giddens’ description of fundamentalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact

Question 8

Monotheism and fundamentalism

Answer 8

• Bruce – main cause of fundamentalism is religious traditionalists feeling threatened by today’s globalized world
• Confined to monotheistic religions because they are based on a notion of God’s will revealed through a single, authoritative text
• Believed to be word of God and to contain specific rules for believers to follow
• Polytheistic religions lack an all – powerful deity so there is far more scope for interpretation (none have claim to absolute truth)

Question 9

Secular fundamentalism - 2 phases of modernity

Answer 9

1. Religious fundamentalism – from the enlightenment to the 1960s. Enlightenment philosophy held an optimistic belief in certainty of progress based on power of human reason. Enlightenment project dominated human thought and helped to secularize all areas of life which attacked and undermined religious certainty.
2. Secular fundamentalism – since the 1970s, the optimism of the enlightenment project has itself come under attack. Growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty which is the product of the insecurity caused by changes such as globalization. Led to loss of faith in the major enlightenment ideologies such as liberalism and rationalism who claims of truth have been undermined. Some supporters of these have also turned to fundamentalism (Yugoslavia’s disintegration led to secular nationalist fundamentalism which justified the ethnic cleansing of territory to have a clear divide)

Question 10

Secular fundamentalism - Davie

Answer 10

all fundamentalist movements are an attractive because they assert truth and certainty

Question 11

Secular fundamentalism - Hervieu Leger

Answer 11

fundamentalism as a form of ‘recreated memories’ in late modern societies that have experienced ‘cultural amnesia’ and forgotten their historic religious traditions

Question 12

Clash of civilisations - Huntingdon

Answer 12

• In recent years, religion has been at the centre of many global conflicts e.g. 9/11
• View of neo – conservative Huntingdon – such conflicts have intensified since the collapse of communism
• The problem is not Islamic fundamentalism, but Islam itself

Question 13

Seven civilisations

Answer 13

• Huntingdon identifies seven civilisations – Western, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian, Japanese, Hindu and Slavic – Orthodox. Have common cultural background and history.
• Religious differences between civilisations are a major source of conflict
• Huntingdon – religious differences are creating a hostile set of ‘us and them’ relationships with increased competition for power
• Sees religious differences as harder to solve than political ones because they are deeply rooted in culture and history
• Huntingdon sees history as a struggle of ‘progress against barbarism’
• Believes West is under threat from Islam and must reassert its identity as a liberal – democratic Christian civilisation

Question 14

Huntingdon - globalisation

Answer 14

• Globalisation has made nation states less significant as a source of identity (a gap which religion has filled)
• At the same time, globalisation increases contact between civilisations which increases risk of conflict

Question 15

Evaluation - Huntingdon

Answer 15

1. Jackson – sees Huntingdon’s work as an example of ‘orientalism’ (a western ideology which stereotypes Eastern nations and people as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical, serving to justify exploitation)
2. Casanova – argues that Huntingdon ignores important religious divisions within the ‘civilisations’ he identifies e.g. between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims
3. Horrie and Chippindale – see the ‘clash of civilisations’ as a grossly misleading neo – conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy. In fact, very few Muslims are remotely interested in a holy war.
4. Armstrong – argues that hostility towards the West does not stem from fundamentalist Islam, but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East (West has supported oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its treatment of Palestinians)

Question 16

Cultural defence

Answer 16

• Bruce – one function of religion is cultural defence
• Serves to unite a community against an external threat
• Has special identity for its followers because it symbolises the group or society’s collective identity

Question 17

Cultural defence - Poland

Answer 17

• From 1945 – 1989, Poland was under communist rule
• During this, the catholic church was suppressed – continued to be a source of Polish national identity
• Catholicism served as a popular rallying point for communist opposition e.g. favour to Solidarity free trade union movement in 1980s

Question 18

Cultural defence - Iran

Answer 18

• Western capitalist powers and oil companies had long term influence, including involvement in the illegal overthrow of a democratic government in the 1950s to install a pro – Western regime headed by the Shah
• During the next two decades – process of modernisation and Westernisation e.g. banning veil and changing Muslim calendar
• Modernisation widened gap between rich and poor, with protest ruthlessly suppressed
• Change was rapid and from above
• Islam became focus for resistance to regime of Shah (led by clerics such as Ayatollah Khomeini)
• Revolution of 1979 brought creation of Islamic republic in which the government could impose sharia
• Haynes – points out that revolution was not typical of Middle East (in that it was led by religious leaders)
• In countries such as Saudi Arabia, the religious leadership is closely tied with local elite (and they with Western imperialism)
• As a result – local religious leaders are opposed by local fundamentalists, who regard them as enemies of Islam

Question 19

Religion and development

Answer 19

• For secularisation theory, modernisation undermines religion
• Importance of science and rational worldview are seen as destroying the belief in supernatural
• Religion may also lead to development e.g. Weber’s protestant ethic

Question 20

India

Answer 20

• Globalisation brought rapid economic growth (made India a political player)
• Brought prosperity to some e.g. new MC
• Nanda’s book ‘God and globalisation’, examines role of Hinduism (religion of 85%) in legitimating the rise of Hindu ‘ultra – nationalism’ and the prosperity of the Indian middle class

Question 21

Hinduism - globalisation

Answer 21

• Globalisation has created a huge, scientifically educated, urban middle – class who work in IT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors closely tied to global economy
• Such people are predicted to be the first to abandon religion in favour of a secular worldview
• Nanda – but a vast majority continued to believe in supernatural
• Centre for study of developing societies – found Indians are becoming more religious (only 5% said it had declined; 30% said they had become more religious)
• Survey found that ‘urban educated Indians are more religious than their rural and illiterate counterparts’
• Increased interest in religion is reflected in growth

Question 22

Hinduism - MC religiosity

Answer 22

• Another feature of this MC religiosity – attracted to what were once low – status village Gods and Goddesses worshipped by the poor (because they are seen as more responsive than great Gods)
• Nanda examines what motivates the sophisticated, urban MC to continue to believe in the supernatural
• Rejects existential insecurity and religion as a defensive measure
• Nanda argues their increasing religiosity is an ambivalence about their new wealth
• Ambivalence stems from tension between traditional Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism and the new prosperity of the middle class
• Resolved for them through modern men and tele – gurus to whom they turn (preach message that desire is not bad, but a manifestation of divinity to cause motivation)
• Dispense business friendly Hinduism and take guilt away by saying consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of rituals

Question 23

Ultra - nationalism

Answer 23

• Pew global attitude survey found that 93% of Indians agree with the statement that ‘our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’
• India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of ‘Hindu values’ (this view is promoted by the media and by politicians, along with the idea that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity)
• In this ultra – nationalism, worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India (Hinduism has become a civil religion)
• Hinduism has also penetrated public life, so the secular state is increasingly influenced by religion e.g. Hindu sciences such as astrology are being taught in universities
• Ministry of defence sponsors development of weapons with magical powers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts
• Ministry of health is investing in the sale of cow urine as a cure for things such as AIDs and TB

Question 24

Capitalism in East Asia

Answer 24

• In recent decades, ‘East – Asian tiger economies’ such as South Korea and Singapore have industrialised and become significant players in the global economy
• Success of capitalism there has led some sociologists to argue that religion has played a role similar to the one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism
• Redding – describes spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economies. Post – Confucian values encouraging hard – work, self – discipline, frugality and commitment to education. The effect of this value system is similar to that of protestant ethic

Question 25

Pentecostalism - Berger

Answer 25

• Berger – argues that Pentecostalism acts as ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s ‘protestant ethic’ (encourages development of capitalism)
• Latin American pentecostalists embrace a work ethic and lifestyle similar to calvinists
• Pentecostalism demands an ascetic way of life that emphasises discipline, hard work and abstinence (leads them to upward mobility)
• Berger concludes that Pentecostalism has a strong affinity with modern capitalism
• Berger agrees with Weber that an ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote economic development and raise a society out of poverty
• Process can be led by an active minority with an ascetic attitude (thus in Chile and Southern Brazil, there is now a growing and prosperous Pentecostalist middle class leading capitalist development.
• However, Berger underlines Weber’s point that religious ideas alone are not enough to produce economic development, they also need material resources.
• While Pentecostalism has grown in Northern Brazil, the region lacks resources and remains backward. The south has both a work ethic and necessary resources

Question 26

Pentecostalism: global and local - Lehmann’s stages

Answer 26

1. Christianity accompanied colonisation and was imposed on the indigenous populations by conquest, often forcibly suppressing local religions
2. Over the last century or so, it has spread because it gained a popular following from below e.g. by 2015, there were 25 million pentecostalists in Brazil alone
   • Lehmann attributes the success of Pentecostalism as a global religion in part to its ability to incorporate local beliefs

Question 27

Pentecostalism: global and local

Answer 27

• Preaches a similar message worldwide, it uses imagery and symbolism drawn from local cultures and beliefs, especially spirit possession cults
• Pentecostalists attack such cults as the work of the devil, but their ministers conduct exorcisms to rid people of evil spirits
• Pentecostalism validates local traditional beliefs, while at the same time claiming to give believers access to a greater power (that of the Christian Holy spirit)
• In this way, Pentecostalism creates new local religious forms, rather than replacing existing local beliefs
• Pentecostalism is successful in developing countries because it is able to appeal to the poor who make up the majority of the population, and because it uses global media to spread its message