religion Flashcards
1
Q
secularisation
A
- Brian Wilson
- the process by which the character of knowledge becomes rooted in rational principals and religious thinking looses its significance for the operation of society
- it is more at an institutional level than at a personal level. Religion became less important in public spheres of life.
- McLeod suggests that there were three different realms - individual, public institutions and common language
2
Q
schools of thought
A
- Many French philosophes looked forward to an age of reason and rejected superstition. Voltaire saw Islam as more rational without priestly hierarchy whilst Gibbon proposed that it was less prone to superstition.
- They tended to be anticlerical not antireligious, critical of the institutions underpinning religious practice as opposed to the religious beliefs themselves. They still appreciated the power of the faith to discipline the poor and understood that tolerant values helped to ensure social stability.
- Many Marxists argued that class consciousness could replace the need for religion
- Necessity of religious tolerance - Edicts of Toleration by Austria 1781, Hamburg 1785, France 1787. Pluralism was the major new characteristic of the period.
- many believed that there was a secular substitute for religion – science. (e.g. Darwin’s work on evolution, Comte’s positivism, Marx identified religion as a symptom of social disorder.
3
Q
measuring religious change
A
- faith is often internalised and therefore it is very difficult to measure
- statistics show a decline in church attendance. In Berlin in 1862, the number of protestant communions in relation to total protestant population was 17%.
- statistics regarding church attendance continued to be significantly higher among women.
- Poor families couldn’t afford respectable clothes and they were therefore undignified and couldn’t go to church. Shortages of actual churches due to population growth made it hard for areas of poverty to sustain church and priest and working on a Sunday became a necessity.
4
Q
education in France
A
- religious teaching abolished in state schools in 1881
- priests and nuns excluded from teaching in state schools 1886
- use of religious symbols in school prohibited in 1903
- 1876 30% of teachers state primary school in religious orders but by 1906 it was less than 1%.
- in 1884 there was a ban on sating prayers during meetings of public bodies and in 1904 a ban on religious symbols in courts of law.
- France pioneered the secular baptism and the introduction of civil marriages and funerals. Victor Hugo’s funeral by secular rites 1885 highly visible example
5
Q
education in England
A
- Education Act of 1870 allowed the existence of new religious neutral schools as well as denominational schools
6
Q
education in Prussia
A
- state took over responsibility for education 1974
- there were changes to the curriculum. More vocational study at university, senior school taught more practical topics like arithmetic and grounded in day to day experiences not religious ideas.
7
Q
evidence for religious revival
A
- Increase in Christians 1800-1900 – 23% to 34.4% of world population. Large part of this outside Europe – directly or indirectly the result of massive missionary movements (also reflected revived religious energy in Europe)
- Jeffrey Cox in study of South London coined term ‘diffusive Christianity’ to describe beliefs of those who were not regular churchgoers but retained some kind of belief in Christian doctrine, continued to observe rites of passage, committed to Christian ethic
- popular religious revival in fraternities and charities, such as St Vincent de Paul societies.
8
Q
methodism as a new theology to access the increasingly disenchanted
A
- Methodism stemmed from German Pietism and stressed inner light against doctrinal authority, religion of the hear, born again conversion against mechanical observance, practical acts of charity, group bible reading, mutual improvement against church service and the importance of work ethos. England Methodist movement rose from 50,000 to 489,000 members 1791-185
- stressed importance of inward conviction not outward truth
9
Q
pilgrimage
A
- had been a costly and hazardous process, confined primarily to elites and high-ranking religious members of society.
- Transport improvements, such as the Ottoman Hajj Caravan and numerous tracts of railway made it more feasible for a large number of ordinary citizens to partake in these expeditions.
- The Trier Pilgrimage of 1844 had 500,000 pilgrims. The Mughal and Ottomans saw it as one of their first duties to accommodate pilgrimage, encouraging local governors to organise the Hajj caravans. This secured large scale traffic and new railways made it more feasible.
- Pilgrimage gave people the opportunity to visit holy places which had previously been considered inaccessible, reaffirming their faith, facilitating missionary activity and exposing people to new forms of religious expression.
- It encouraged architectural uniformity as seen by the Arabic Domed Mosque. An awareness of a wider religious community established a sense of pan- European religiosity
- Mary Lee Nolan and Sydney Nolan took part in a pilgrimage in Christian Western Europe, documenting 6150 places of pilgrimage in 16 countries. Catherine Ford.
10
Q
improvements to printing techniques
A
- Encouraged the proliferation of standardised religious doctrines.
- Over the course of the century, the bible became the single most produced book in all of Northern Europe.
- Christianity and the bible provided a common language, accessible to all classes and those at most points on the political spectrum
11
Q
better communication methods for religion
A
- It allowed religious individuals to play a more active role in political affairs, something which had previously been forbidden by the constitution of St Ignatius, in 1850, Pius IX presided over the Civilita Cattolica, signalling the start of a modern papal publicity policy and allowing the pope to communicate directly with people who may otherwise not have been able to.
- The papal journal, Osservatore Romano of 1871 achieved a special status as the authoritative voice of the church. Article 80, for example, denounced the secularisation of education in the kingdom of Piedmont.
- The press allowed for a trans-national public sphere. Irish readers of the Tablet could follow the secularising measures in the Piedmontese parliament. It helped to sustain a shared sense of predicament and encouraged more people to support the Holy See.
12
Q
imperialism and religion
A
- 100,000 European missionaries in Africa by 1900.
- Christian education conferred literacy and therefore power and economic status. it provided an avenue for social mobilit
13
Q
the corpus Chris procession
A
- Oliver Zimmer
- The German Corpus Christi procession established in 1264 by Papal decree aimed to venerate the holy sacrament by representing the liturgical enactment of transubstantiation and allowing religious belief to manifest in the public sphere.
- In the German town of Ludwifshafen, the editors of the national liberal Pfalzischer Kurier allowed the Catholic parish priest, Hofherr, to partake in local reporting
- in Augburg, the procession became more than just a religious affair, creating opportunities for urban sociability and leisure.
- people with liberal conviction, such as the Local Association of Gymnasts, reserved the day for general festivity, exercising and holding competitions accordingly, albeit in pursuit of their own ideologies.
14
Q
religion and nationalism
A
- led to the creation of imagined communities based exclusively on Christian cultural foundations.
- Religion played big role in people’s perceptions of who they were, who they were not. Eg. anti-Semitism acted as ‘cultural code’ in Imperial Germany – advocating anti-Semitism also way to advocate nationalism and strong state
- Pan-Slavism took off in Russia and was a devotion to the orthodox Christian church
- religious discrimination in Poland was also shown to energise nationalism. All four of its bordering neighbours have a unique religious system but a Jewish population had also been imposed on the country. This heightened religious differences and meant that Catholicism became part and part of polish identity.
- Many catholic voters chose liberal candidates because he supported Home Rule for Ireland.
- Many Jewish communities of Europe favoured a secular state as this would allow neutrality in the religious question.
- Secularisation was less prominent in countries where Catholics felt themselves part of a disadvantaged group or where religion became the identity of an oppressed ethnicity. The church was successful here at garnering popular support and mentalities didn’t secularise to the same extent.
- In India, religion could fragment nationalist demands as much as it could unite.
- Italian nationalism challenged princely authority of the Pope and Papal States
15
Q
religion and capitalism
A
- . In the SE of France, the silk merchants of Lyon and the Montgolfier figure of Annonay both suggest that Catholicism had adopted a capitalist orientation. workshops of the silk industry trained nuns to oversee the workshops.
- There was some basis for an alliance between Catholics and businessmen. Both groups tended to support the right and agreed on the need to moralise the lower ranks of society.
- Ideally, the employer would care for his workers and therefore labour turnover would reduce and productivity would increase. The church had a tradition of providing pastoral care – needs converged. Augustin Cochin promoted socially responsible policies among Catholic employers (e.g. a canteen supervised by the Sisters of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul).
16
Q
increase in the practicalities of religion
A
- More women than men joined the church during this period and by 1904 French women outnumbered their male counterparts four to one (David Blackbourn)
- Women performed catholic rites more regularly and faithfully than men did. Between 1798and the early 1880s, 200,000 women in France joined religious congregations.
17
Q
feminisation - the evolution of piety and devotion
A
- This required emotional and intimate traits which were considered natural for females.
- The Industrial revolution introduced ideas of the ‘cult of domesticity’ and the ‘cult of true womanhood’ with women’s greatest role as a wife and a mother.
- Women’s highest virtues were therefore piety, purity, domesticity, submissiveness. Piety became associated more and more exclusively with women’s sphere of life. In order to spend more time on business and work men could ‘outsource’ their family’s faith – leaving wife in charge.
- the figure of the virgin Mary was central to the feminisation of devotion. For example, the Sacred Heart of Mary, the Rosary and the consecration of May to the Virgin.
- There was also a high number of Marian apparitions (Lourdes in France in 1858 and Marpingen in Germany in 1876 and the Virgin of Begona in Biscay.
18
Q
secular motivations for women to join the church
A
- Secularisation cannot be understood purely in terms of patterns of social behaviour. It is necessary to look at the principals and assumptions that these statistics conceal. people can attend church without subscribing to religious belief.
- As a result of legislation such as the Napoleonic Code, many women had been excluded from the public world of politics. . Entry into the church provided an alternative path to professional opportunities meaning women could get involved in the domains of medicine and education.
- this could temporarily denounce traditional gender roles, affording women status and power otherwise denied in secular spheres of life.
19
Q
women and religious education
A
- M otherhood became a key component of women in public matters. This was more than feeding children; it involved transmitting knowledge, principals and values.
- in order for women to educate their children, mothers needed to have been previously instructed. This was one of the main reasons which persuaded liberals to declare the schooling of girls as compulsory in 1857.
- The Catalan Journalist joaquin Roca y Cornet published a treatise in 1868 titled Handbook of Catholic Mothers which was a collection of the progressive educational proposals defenced at that time by the French Bishop Felix Dupanloup.
- Female congregations thus contributed to primary education. they could use their maternal instincts beyond the narrow constraints of the home.
20
Q
feminisation of religion - consolidation of male hierarchy
A
- Raul Minquez Blasco
the dogma of the immaculate conception was defined in the 19th century – 1854. The consolidation of the Catholic Church as an institution in charge of spiritual power meant an increase in the pope’s authority over the whole of Catholicism and reached its highest point with the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility in 1870. - the immaculate conception was the first dogma defined under exclusive initiative of the pope and not by intervention of a council.
- model of priestly masculinity legitimised their privileged position with the ability to control passions, particularly in the realm of sexuality. This presented them as morally superior to the laity.
- Men still held power in the church. Claret was archbishop of Santiago de Cuba and trajanopolis and author of 100 books. between 1848 and 1866, the Libreria Religiosa printed nearly 3 million books. He was one of the most influential clergymen in Spain at the time.
21
Q
why did liberals became anticlerical?
A
- the beliefs and collective practices of numerous religions were no longer compatible with the modern polity that Europe had become. they objected to the clergy’s insistence on its social superiority, privileges, prerogatives, tax exemptions and immunities from civil jurisdiction.
- liberals such as Ignaz Dollinger criticised papal infallibility.
- Radical democrats also encouraged anticlericalism, seeing the church as an obstacle to economic and social progress. Individuals like Kalman Ghyczy wanted to nationalise all of the church property.
- The 1870 Vatican Council which outlined papal infallibility was the last straw for anticlericals. This held the individual in a state of ignorance and hindered modernisation.
- They also did not like clerical abuses such as simony, plurality, nepotism and scandalous behaviour. They wanted to overturn an inherited order based on hierarchy and coercion.
22
Q
culture wars in Germany
A
- Chris Clark
- Following the Vatican Council’s 1870 proclamation of papal infallibility, Bismarck became increasingly concerned with the authority of the church. A bitter struggle or ‘kulturkampf’ between these two factions therefore begun.
- He introduced laws which sought to neutralise Catholicism as a political force and contesting religious control of education and ecclesiastical appointments
- the number of religious orders was restricted, the Jesuits were banned, civil marriage was sanctioned and uncooperative priests were removed from their parishes
- Catholic population large minority – 35%, regionally concentrated. German state dominated by Protestant elites, specifically by Prussia. Northern German liberals protected Protestant progressive identity in opposition to Catholic backwardness, superstition and ignorance
- New printing techniques developed caricatures and by 1870, the leading German satirical journal boasted a circulation of some 50,000 copies. A common design was the pope at a lotto counter and frustration in his infallibility which would help him win
23
Q
culture wars in Spain
A
- in Spain print media such as the ‘New Catholic press’ which operated during the 1840s focused Catholic attention on incidents of government harassment and provided a forum for ultra-montane opinion in the parishes
- This antagonised authorities and meant that between 1836 and 1845, 83% of the property belonging to religious orders was seized and sold
- In Spain, the liberal government set about creating a national church under state control. This led to a formal protest from Gregory XVI articulated in the battle cry ‘Rome is our goal’. When there was a reduction of the Pope’s domain during the annexation of papal states by the kingdom of Piedmont, an address gathered over 5 million signatures.
- the First Spanish Republic enacted some anticlerical laws but they were repealed or disregarded when the monarchy was restored in 1874.
24
Q
regional variations in spain
A
- There had always been a strong relationship between the Catholic Church and the propertied classes.
- this had bred contempt among the left and cultivated anticlerical sentiment in many industrial cities, meaning that during the nineteenth century, the north of Spain remained far more devout than the south.
- The St Malo/Geneva line came to divide a literate enlightened industrial northern France from an illiterate, rural underdeveloped southern France.
25
anticlericalism in France
- -The Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 subordinated the church to the French state and it led liberal movements to abolish the church as a state institution.
- anti-clericalism peaked during the creation of the Third Republic in 1871 with royalist clerical parties opposing Republican-anticlerical parties.
- The Ferry laws established free, secular education, compulsory civil marriage and the opportunity for divorce.
- The Law of Associations in 1901 suppressed nearly all of the religious orders in France and confiscated their property. The separation law of 1905 sundered church and the state.
26
anticlericalism in italy
- anticlericalism was fused with nationalism and liberalism. Pope Pius IX defending his positions as temporal ruler of the papal states opposed Italian unity.
- Camillo Cavour passed a series of anticlerical laws, abolishing the civil jurisdiction of canonical courts and suppressing many monasteries. He also sanctioned civil marriage. Divorce was not permitted, and religious instruction was not banned from schools.
- Pius IX in 1874 forbade Catholics to participate in political activities. When Rome became the capital of Italy, it undermined papal authority.
- Some concessions were made. in 1929, the Lateran Treaty was signed, ending the dispute over the temporal power by making the pope ruler of the small state of Vatican City.
27
modes of anticlericalism
- The theatre played an important role in sustaining this culture. Tartuffe depicted catholic priests peaching poverty but living in luxury.
- Newspapers and print culture, such as La Libre Pensee, printed the ideas of free thinkers.
28
ultramontanism
- a clerical political conception within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the pope. Ultramontane titles proliferated from ten in 1834 to 25 in 1839 and 36 in 1847.
- Ultramontane journals framed mordant critiques of liberal regimes and the secular cultures that flourished under them. They supported catholic politicians and parties. It crossed national boundaries and created a Europe-wide network of communication and solidarity.
29
how did urbanisation impact religion
- Urban areas sustained large migrant populations, and this created a mobile population which was difficult to maintain contact with. This created logistical problems.
- Some entrepreneurs might insist that workers come in on a Sunday and this impeded religious practice, or they might only hire from certain religious pools. Berlin was noted for low levels of church attendance – 1869 3% of member of Protestant church went to services on Sunday, by 1913 1%
- People coming together and exposed to new ideas and ways of thinking. Trade unions for example encouraged liberalism which tended to be anticlerical.
- In Berlin, protestant churches suffered from severe shortages of churches and clergy even before onset of rapid population growth. 1739 – 1835 not a single new Protestant church built. Only 1890s did long discussed church building programme start
30
religious minorities discriminated against in the Ottoman Empire
- before 1856, there was a persistent pressure on non-muslin religious minorities to convert with a continuing danger that apostates would be put to death.
- In 1853, it was reported from Iskodra in Alabnia, that a certain George and his cousin Antonia, had been pressured into accepting Islam. Muslims were the ruling class within the Ottoman Empire and religious minorities were exempted from areas of public life like government posts.
31
minorities in the Ottoman Empire after 1856
- in 1856, they introduced the Reform Edict which promised equal treatment for adherents of all creeds in educational opportunity, appointment to government posts, the administration of justice as well as in taxation and military service.
- Some Christians were appointed to local advisory councils of 1856
- Christians and Muslims were both accepted into the imperial lycee of Galata Saray in 1867.
- they were still seen as second-class citizens as seen by the common term gavvur, which meant unbeliever of infidel. Revolts were seen in localities in 1859 and a conspiracy was intercepted, directed against Abdulmedjid I (the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) and his ministers, in response to the proclamations of Christian equality.
- some were happy to let the pre-1856 status quo persists. In spite of the state’s repeal of the old military exemption tax to grant Christians military service, many Christians preferred to pay the tax instead of conscripting
32
jews in Egypt
- In Egypt, Rifaa Rafi Tahtavi, the sole spokesman of Mohammad Ali (the Ottoman Sultan’s deputy, and de facto ruler of Egypt) who drafted the constitutional structure for the Egyptians, stated that “All the Jews and Christians and [those] who plough the land of Egypt, speak the language of Egypt, will be included in this category”.
- Jews fled the eastern pogrom crisis settled in Egypt. Here they were commissioned for administrative services, commenced business ventures and worked as bookkeepers.
- As noted by C. A. Bayly, Egypt had “always been a unique province within the Ottoman Empire”.
33
Russia and the jews
- In 1874, Russian military reforms introduced universal conscription and its Jewish soldiers fought bravely in substantial numbers in the Russo-Turkish war.
- In 1881, shortly after the assassination of Alexander II on March 1st, anti-Jewry sentiment spiked, and several waves of pogroms hit southern and southwestern Russia. From April to December of 1881 alone, 40 Jews were murdered, and 225 Jewish women were raped, which was followed in 1903-1906 by an even bloodier wave of pogroms where a reported further 2,500 Jews were slaughtered.
34
jewish emancipation in France
- Jewish emancipation happened earlier in 1791
- The Jewish Rothschild family, who played a considerable role in the Central Bank of France (whose banking dynasty extended also to London, Vienna and Frankfurt in 1863). He also was involved in the construction of the first French railroad – the Paris-St Germain line.
- Members of the Pereires, Eichtal, and Rodngues families were also eminent.
- The Jewish Chronicle of London kept close tabs on the careers of Jewish army officers throughout Europe and the Ottoman Empire. in some cases, this gave them pre-eminence over their fellow non-Jews and officers
35
Jewish discrimination in France
- Under the restoration, Catholicism was the official state religion until 1848.
- the Rothschild family was demonised and became the face of relentless Jewish conspiracy. This was the case even though the banks were dominated by Great aristocratic catholic families. They accounted for a small proportion of those successful members of the French society but bore the brunt of popular hostility.
- Hostility intensified particularly in response to the settling of Eastern Jews in France who were fleeing the Russian pogroms. This too coincided with the period of the Long Depression.
- - Dreyfus affair (Jewish army officer in France) experienced backlash when he was falsely convicted of leaking military secrets to the German embassy.
36
anti-semitism in Germany
- The congress of Vienna in 1815 rescinded French imposed legislation and therefore the annulment of the full emancipation introduced in formerly French territories.
- The provisional ordinance of 1833 created two categories of Jews. To qualify as a naturalised Jew, a clean police record was needed, know the G language and to exercise a civil occupation. Non-naturalised Jews had restricted civil liberties.
- article 14 of the prorevolutionary Prussian constitution of 1850 suggested that the Christian religion shall form the basis of all institutions of the state
- public demonstrations, such as the Berlin movement launched by Adolf Stoecker, embody the unrelenting hostility and antipathy directed towards Jews.
37
arguments for and against jewish emancipation
- Birnbaum
- Jews had exclusive and unsociable tendencies. The argument was therefore that by enabling Jews to enter civil society, civil betterment would occur and the eventual fusion of communities (Dohm). They needed education under the guidance of the state.
- some argued that Jews were unready to embrace the responsibilities of full citizenship (e.g. only a minority spoke the German language adequately and sabbath observance had implications for military duties). They must therefore adopt the mannerisms of society and this would be a lengthy process.
- Some argued that historical conditions had provided Jews with immutable traits meaning no radical change was possible. They had to remain segregated in somewhat an apartheid.
38
jewish emancipation in Germany
- In provinces under French control (e.g. Westphalia in 1808) Jews were given complete equality. Ruled by N bother Jerome. This led to a growth of these provinces. In 1808, municipal rights were extended to all Jew
- The law promulgated in July 1869 for the Confederation achieved full legal emancipation of all Jews in the northern German and this extended to southern states in 1871.
39
statistics regarding jewish position in German society
- Approximately one fifth of the Jewish population were beggars and at the bottom of the social scale.
- The Hofjuden were the few at the other end of the social scale (2% of the Jewish population) and could hold positions in correspondence with the kings and bishops.
- the (Adelsburger) who contributed and were beneficiaries of mercantilist policies and this allowed them to enter branches of industry and commerce
40
how did economic conditions influence anti-semitism
- The Long Depression (1873-1896 – an international economic recession) created anti-capitalist resentment targeted towards the Jews. German Jews were widely blamed for fraudulent manipulations of the so-called Gründungsschwindel;
- in 1881 anti-Semites presented to the government a petition bearing 250,000 signatures demanding the exclusion of Jews from state positions.
- liberalism created the basis for a blossoming of central European Jewry in economic and professional competition and education. enmity started as resentment towards Jewish business owners and then it manifested into the ethnicity as a whole.
41
the concentration of anti-semitism in urban regions
- This meant that anti-Semitism was largely concentrated in particular regions were the Jews were in largest number and had most successfully penetrated the liberal bourgeoisie – Berlin and Vienna.
- from 1850-1900, the populations increased from 9595-106000 and from 2000 to 146,936, respectively.
- Rural anti-Semitism was rare and election results that in both Germany and Austria, the highly-differentiated farm owning and agricultural working classes had different views pertaining to the Jewish question.
