relationships (test 2) Flashcards
1
Q
define processing speed
A
the amount of time it takes for an individual to analyze incoming information from the senses, formulate decisions, and prepare a response (on the basis of that analysis)
2
Q
is processing speed a fundamental unit of study in cognition and aging?
A
yes
3
Q
define reaction time
A
the basic measure of processing speed
4
Q
how do researchers measure reaction time?
A
researchers will ask participants to complete an action when the screen flashes a particular stimulus
5
Q
what are the different types of reaction time tasks?
A
1) simple reaction time tasks
–> participants are instructed to make a response (ex. push a button) as soon as they see the target
2) choice reaction time tasks
–> participants must make one response for one stimulus and another response for a different stimulus
6
Q
reaction times as a young adult will be ______ than as an old adult
A
LOWER (meaning quicker)
- age-effects: decreased reaction time (get slower with age)
7
Q
what are the age-related hypotheses for reaction time?
A
1) general slowing hypothesis
- suggests that the increase in reaction time reflects a general decline of information processing speed within the nervous system of the aging individual
-(lack of efficiency in the CNS than the PNS)
2) age-complexity hypothesis
- suggests that through the slowing of central processes in the nervous system, older adults perform progressively more poorly as the tasks become more complex and their processing resources are stretched more and more to their limit
-(seen in the Brinley Plot)
8
Q
what is the Brinley Plot?
A
A plot in which reaction times of older adults are graphed against those of younger adults
Findings:
easy tasks = more similar performance between younger and older adults (though, younger adults still have the advantage)
more difficult tasks = much larger difference in performance between younger and older adults
9
Q
define attention
A
involves the (1) ability to focus or concentrate on a portion of experience while ignoring other features of that experience, (2) to be able to shift that focus as demanded by the situation, (3) and to be able to coordinate information from multiple sources
10
Q
What are some types of attentional tasks?
A
- visual search task
- stroop test
- sustained attention task
11
Q
define visual search tasks
A
these tasks require that the observer / participant locate a specific target among a set of distractors
12
Q
what are the types of visual search tasks?
A
simple visual search:
- the target differs from the other stimuli by only one feature such as shape, colour, or size
(ex. task may be to respond by pushing a button every time you saw a specific target in front of the screen)
conjunction visual search:
- the target differs from the distractors in more than one way
(ex. may be asked to detect a red ‘X’, while stimuli may be different coloured letters)
13
Q
what type of processing do visual search tasks rely on?
A
simple visual search
- parallel processing
–> able to scan the whole image at once, just looking for the one feature that matches that of the target
conjunction visual search
- serial processing (more time-consuming)
–> must scan EACH target to determine whether or not it has all the qualities of the target (typically need to detect 2+ features)
14
Q
how does age impact the results of visual search tasks?
A
simple visual search:
older and younger adults perform relatively similar
conjunction visual search:
older and younger adults perform less efficiently ; however, its more difficult (requires more cognition) for older adults
15
Q
what is the stroop test and what does it test for?
A
in this test, participants are asked to tell the name of the ink colour in which a word is printed
- tests for inhibitory control
good inhibitory control = quick and accurate performance in the stroop test
16
Q
define inhibitory control
A
the process of turning off one response while performing another
17
Q
what is the sustained attention task?
A
participants must only respond when they see a particular target appear in a continuous stream of stimuli
18
Q
how do older adults perform in sustained attention tasks?
A
older adults tend to have more difficulty with this task because they take longer to shift their focus from trial to trial
19
Q
what is the ‘over-the-hill’ mentality and how might it relate to aging?
A
Belief that the more one worries about how they are performing, the less able they are to concentrate on the task
–> those who are worried about the aging of their cognitive abilities are more likely to engage in identity accommodation
20
Q
what are the theories of attention and aging?
A
attentional resources theory:
suggests that attention is a process that reflects the allocation of cognitive resources ; people must dedicate a certain proportion of their mental operations to certain objects or tasks
–> claims that older adults have greater difficulty on attentional tasks because they have a decreased availability of attentional resources, leading to longer times to respond
inhibitory deficit hypothesis:
suggests that aging reduces the individual’s ability to inhibit or tune out irrelevant information
–> claims that older adults will perform better when they have fewer distractions
21
Q
what is the relationship between video game players and attention?
A
cognitive benefits:
- improved attentional capacity
- more efficient eye movement
- able to scan environments quicker
- better able to focus their attention and ignore distracting stimuli
- able to keep track of multiple targets at once
- ability to process rapidly changing streams of information
22
Q
what is the relationship between driving and aging?
A
changes in basic cognitive function may impair older adult’s ability to drive safely
–> ex. loss of eye sight, reaction speed (although years of experience may compensate for these changes)
23
Q
what is the biopsychosocial view on driving and aging?
A
bio:
changes in vision and reaction time
psycho:
internal distractions may cause anxiety
social:
distance from work, pleasure, and lack of public transportation services
–> prejudice from younger adults may increase driving anxiety
24
Q
what is the dataset on motor vehicle fatalities for older adults?
A
older adults (65+) are more likely to be in motor vehicle accidents due to distractions
25
what is the general relationship between memory and aging?
the aging process has negative effects on many aspects of memory... BUT ...not all aspects of memory are affected in the same way
26
define working memory
memory processes that keeps information temporarily available and active in consciousness
27
when is working memory being used?
when...
- trying to learn new information
- trying to bring information to mind that you previously learned (trying to recall)
28
how is working memory assessed?
by assigning a task to participants that prevents them from consciously rehearsing the information they are supposed to remember
- ex. the 'n-back' test
--> participants would be required to repeat the 'nth' item back in a list of items presented in serial order
29
what is the default network and how is it related to working memory?
default network: a circuit in the brain that is active when the brain is at rest while processing internal stimuli
--> includes: hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, cingulate cortex
2) during tasks that involve working memory, other areas of the brain become activated and the default network deactivates
--> deactivates when trying to recall information
--> age-related changes to the default network may contribute to poor working memory
30
define long-term memory (LTM)
the repository of information that is held for a period of time ranging from several minutes to a lifetime
--> contains information including the recent past (ex. where you put your keys 30 min ago) and from the far past (ex. your 8th birthday party)
31
what are the processes of LTM?
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
32
define episodic memory
LTM for events ('episodes')
33
what are the age-related effects on episodic memory?
aging is related to impairments in episodic memory (in encoding and retrieving information)
--> age-related damage to the white matter which is important for transferring neural information between the frontal cortex and hippocampus
34
define scaffolding theory in terms of memory and aging
suggests that older adults are able to recruit neural circuits if needed by task demands to make up for losses suffered elsewhere in the brain
--> age-related structural changes may be compensated by a heightened activation of the prefrontal cortex
35
define remote memory
recall of information from the distant past
--> information that is stored and not accessed from remote memory becomes increasingly difficult to retrieve with passing years (except for autobiographical memory)
36
define autobiographical memory
the recall of information from your OWN past
37
define reminiscence bump
period of clear memories for the ages of about 10-30 years
- particularly strong for happy memories
- may be kept because the memory is central to the person's identity
38
define flashbulb memory
the recall of important and distinct events that stand out from other memories of past events
- the emotional meaning makes the memories more distinct
39
define semantic memory
ability to recall word meanings and factual information
40
define procedural memory
the recall of actions involved in particular tasks (ex. playing the piano, riding a bike)
41
define implicit memory
LTM for information that is acquired without the intention of doing so
42
define source memory
the recall of where or how an individual acquires information (ex. trying to remember which one of your professors hinted at a pop-quiz)
43
define prospective memory
the recall of events to be performed in the future (ex. remembering to study for the class that may have a pop quiz)
44
define retrieval-induced forgetting (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
being unable to remember information that a person knew at one point in time
--> more common in older adults
45
what are the types of memory that are affected by age (show age-related declines)?
age-related declines (*SEP*):
- **source memory** (also more susceptible to false or illusory memories)
- **episodic memory**
- **prospective memory** (slightly affected ; not as good as before)
46
what are the types of memory that are not affected by the aging process?
- semantic memory
- implicit memory
- procedural memory
47
what are some influences on retrieval failure?
- the frequency with which the information is typically needed for everyday use (more likely to forget infrequent information)
- exposure to new words/concepts that were not typical when the individual was younger
- being less well-educated (spec. face-naming tasks)
48
what is the identity process model?
a psychosocial model that predicts that unnecessary concerns about memory loss can turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy
49
what are some psychosocial influences on memory?
"*SIMM*"
- stereotype threat
- identity process model (self-fulfilling prophecy)
- memory self-efficacy
- memory controllability
50
define memory self-efficacy
refers to the confidence one has in their memory ; specifically, the degree to which one feels that they can successfully complete a memory task
--> belief affects performance ; older adults feel less confident about their memory
51
define stereotype threat
a concept that people perform in way consistent with the negative stereotype of the group to which they view themselves as belonging to
--> a self-identification as 'old' may contribute to poorer performance
52
define memory controllability
refers to beliefs about the effects of the aging process on memory (beliefs on individual control over memory ability)
--> the extent to which an individual believes that memory decline is inevitable with age
53
what is the relationship between memory and health-related behaviours?
memory in later adulthood is also associated with health-related behaviours
--> ex. cigarette smoking ; causes decline in cognition over time
54
what are some health-related lifestyle factors that can help sustain memory in adulthood?
- no smoking
- aerobic exercise (cognition improves with heart-pumping activities)
- healthy diet (especially fish, 'brain food')
- strength training (increases self-efficacy)
- stress management (stress negatively impacts cognition)
- limited emotional strain (high negative emotions [ex. depression/anxiety] can lead to poorer cognitive performance)
55
what are memory training studies?
studies that have found that...
providing memory training to older adults (esp. in group settings) can help boost self-efficacy and memory performance
--> ex. method of Loci (training to improve LTM)
56
what were some of the reasons why individuals are 'sexless in Japan'?
- low self-confidence ; rejection is viewed as traumatizing (culturally less accepting of failure?)
- men find women scary
- choose to put more energy towards their hobbies (too much effort to maintain an intimate relationship)
- escaping the patriarchy / expectations
57
what are the reasons / perspectives on long-term relationships
- socioemotional selectivity theory
- social exchange theory
- equity theory
- similarity
- need complementarity
- suffocation model
58
define marriage
a legally sanctioned union
59
what are some reasons why couples get married?
- believe it will bring happiness
- social pressure / expectations to get married
- believe it will increase romance
- practical reasons: joining families together, financial benefits, house maintenance
- social reasons: increase social status, bringing families together
- believe its the next step closer to having children
60
what are some of the trends on marriage?
- decrease in % of marriages in Canada
- common-law is becoming more popular (more social acceptance)
- increase in same-sex marriages
61
what are some of the advantages that marriage offers to both partners?
- reduction in mortality among older adults
- greater happiness and higher quality of life
- financial benefits (ex. ability to file joint income tax returns, privileges to benefits)
62
what does marital happiness look like over the years?
_____ after the wedding:
first 6 months:
honeymoon period (happiest of all)
6 months - 5 years:
happiness dips ; divorce is common ; usual time for birth of first child
5 to 10 years:
happiness holds steady
10 to 20 years:
happiness dips as children reach puberty
20 to 30 years:
happiness rises when children leave the nest
30 to 50 years:
happiness is high and steady, barring serious health problems
63
define cohabitation
living in a stable relationship prior to or instead of marrying
64
what are some trends seen with cohabitation (cohabitation effects)?
- increasing in Canada
- mostly observed in younger adults, though increasing in older adults
- serial cohabiters predict higher rates of marital disruption
65
define living apart together (LAT)
couples that are in long-term and committed relationships but choose to maintain separate residences
66
what are some benefits of LAT?
- personal independence maintained
- less fighting / protection from personal risks (ex. negative emotional experiences)
- protection from practical, financial, and legal risks associated with cohabitation
67
are rates of marriage and divorce influenced by historical events and changing laws?
yes
68
what are some common reasons for divorce?
- financial stress
- fall out of love
- cultural differences
- infidelity
- different perspectives raising children
69
what are some stats observed with divorce?
- increase of divorce and separation among those 55 and older
- divorce is more likely for people who are in their second marriage
- divorce is more likely for people who were previously in a common-law or cohabitation situation
- overall, divorce rates have declined (but media doesn't share this)
70
why is the marriage statistics often shown by the media incorrect?
those statistics reflect, in a given year, the overall number of couples that have gotten married and the overall number of couples that have gotten divorced
- the 50% rate we hear about is NOT based on the same couples
--> these numbers get compared ; not very realistic
--> would be more realistic if they did longitudinal studies
71
define divorce proneness
the greater tendency to contemplate divorce when their marriage is in trouble
--> because some people get divorced more than once, they inflate the overall stats
72
what are Gottman's risk factors for divorce?
--> 4 negative patterns that can predict divorce
(accumulation of these patterns over time)
- criticism
--> dangerous to a relationship because it's a way of feeling an attack ; leads to an escalation of conflict
- contempt
--> dangerous to a relationship because its mocking / acting superior to the other
--> best predictor of divorce
- defensiveness
--> dangerous because people are not taking responsibility for being part of the problem ; pushing the issue to the other partner
- stonewalling
--> dangerous because silence can make the other partner more upset (even if they are just trying to calm down and not make the situation worse)
73
what are Gottman's types of marriages?
(" *HAVE* ")
**hostile negative marriages**:
--> couples that show high levels of anger towards each other
**avoidant marriages**:
--> known as 'conflict minimizers'
--> couples that don't try to persuade each other, and just agree to disagree
**volatile marriages**:
--> couples that disagree and argue a lot, and don't listen to each other
--> also includes couples that laugh and show lots of affection (passionate)
**emotionally unexpressive marriages**:
--> extreme lack of emotion (positive or negative) when they interact ; limited affection, humour, anger, and facial expressions
74
what is Bowlby's Internal Working Model of Relationships?
the set of beliefs about the self, the primary caregiver, and the relationship between them
--> child develops a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of the relationship
--> inner representations of parent-child bond that becomes an important aspect of adult personality
--> internal working models can change over time
75
what are the different attachment styles (Abrams, 2017 ; Bowlby)
secure:
trust that your partner is there for you
avoidant-dismissing:
uncomfortable with intimacy so distance to keep autonomy
avoidant-fearful:
desires social/romantic contact, but fears rejection
anxious-preoccupied:
high anxiety, low avoidance, high neediness
anxious-avoidant:
desires and fears closeness at the same time ; often behave in ways that seem rejecting
76
what are some consequences of divorce?
- lower income
- lower family welfare
- lower self-esteem
77
define the widowhood effect
a greater probability of death in those who have become widowed compared to those who are married
78
how do people react to widowhood?
reactions vary
--> widowhood is not a unitary process
- majority show 'resilient grief'
- others showed depression before and after the loss
79
describe the widowhood effect on people
--> often leads to depression which can result in...:
- nutrition suffers
- lack of people to talk to
- less exercise
- financial difficulties
- increased drinking/smoking
--> more likely to die
80
what are the 5 levels of depression in widowhood?
least depressed --> most depressed
(1) resilient (most common)
(2) common grief
(3) depressed-improved
(4) chronic grief
(5) chronic depression
81
describe socioemotional selectivity theory
predicts that older adults become more satisfied with their long-term partners as their awareness increases of the limited time they have left together each passing year
*--> positive sentiment override [aka. older adults are more likely to see the positive aspects of their relationships even when they have disagreements]*
82
describe social exchange theory
predicts why some relationships succeed and other fail in terms of whether the relationship's rewards exceed the costs of alternatives to that relationship
--> cost-benefit analysis [when rewards of marriage (ex. love, friendship, finances) no longer outweigh the costs, breakup will happen]
--> supported theory
83
describe equity theory
proposes that partners are satisfied in a relationship if they feel they are getting what they deserve
--> principle of fairness
--> suggests that partners will try to adjust their efforts to match each other's contribution (relationships more likely to fail if one partner does not match what their partner contributes)
84
describe the similarity hypothesis
proposed that similarity of personality and values predicts both initial interpersonal interaction and satisfaction within long-term relationships
85
describe need complementarity hypothesis
proposes that people seek and are more satisfied with marital partners who are the opposite of themselves (working on the 'same team')
86
describe the suffocation model of marriage
suggests that adults place more emphasis on marriage as a source of self-expression and fulfillment, but have less time to devote to maintaining their marriage
87
what is the behavioural approach to marital interactions?
claims that the actual behaviours that partners engage in with each other during marital interactions is an influence on marital stability and quality
88
in terms of the behavioural approach to marital interactions, what are reasons why partners may be more satisfied or less satisfied in LT relationships?
more satisfied when....
- partner engaged in positive or rewarding behaviours (ex. expressing affection)
less satisfied when....
- partner is critical or abusive
- partner avoids maintaining emotional connection
89
list the different pathways in long-term relationships
- emergent distress
- enduring dynamics
- disillusionment
--> in all pathways, you start happy
90
describe the enduring dynamics pathway
suggests that the way a couple interacts early in their relationship will characterize the course of the relationship over time
--> most data supports this pathway model
91
describe the emergent distress pathway
claims that people develop relationship problems over time, and are made worse by poor conflict resolution (and poor communication)
92
describe disillusionment pathway
refers to those who start out happy and in love at the beginning of marriage, and overtime fall out of love and begin to develop mixed feelings about their partner
93
provide reasons why the empty nest can be a positive step for a couple's relationship?
- more leisure time together
- improved sexual relations
- greater marital satisfaction
94
provide reasons why the empty nest may pose challenges in a couple's relationship
- identity that is wrapped up in their 'parent role'
- feeling they are losing control over their child's lives
- lacking a support network
95
define 'empty nest syndrome'
when parents feel depressed after the child leaves the home and experience feelings of loss and grief
--> about 20% of parents (?)
96
what is the transition to parenthood (TtP)?
the period of adjustment to the new family status represented by the presence of a child in the home
97
explain TtP in relation to the biopsychosocial model
bio changes:
hormonal changes; when the mother bears the child
psychological changes:
both parents experiencing emotional highs and lows associated with changing to parent status
social changes:
new role of parenthood alters status and relationships with others & the community
--> also incorporates societal norms/expectations of parenthood and roles
98
do parent-adult child relationships change?
yes, as children move through their adult years, many areas of their relationship with their parents will change
99
list concepts in parent-adult child relationship
- intergenerational stake
- developmental schism
- role reversal
- filial maturity
- filial anxiety
- filial obligation
100
describe intergenerational stake
older generations value the relationship with their adult children more than children value the relationship with their parents
101
describe developmental schema
the gap between parents and children in how much they value the relationship and seek independence
102
describe role reversal
refers to family situations in which adult children take over the role as the parent because their parents are unable to care for themselves
--> opposite from intergenerational stake hypothesis
--> not supported concept
103
describe filial maturity
occurs when children reach the age of relating to their parents as equals
--> can share thoughts/feelings with parents ; more of a balanced relationship (less power imbalance)
104
describe filial anxiety
the fear of having to take care of an aging, infirm parent
105
describe filial obligation
the cultural values that adult children are expected to care for their parents, including having them live in their homes (filial piety)
--> feeling of commitment that the child should care for the parent
106
what is the intergenerational solidarity model (ISM)?
describes 6 dimensions of solidarity that characterizes adult family relationships (areas that solidify parent-child relationships)
107
what are the 6 dimensions of the intergenerational solidarity model (ISM)?
- functional (help exchange)
- associational (frequency of interaction)
- structural (availability in terms of distance and health)
- consensual (agreement in values, beliefs, and lifestyles)
- affectual (feelings)
- normative (commitment to fulfill family obligations)
"FA-SCAN"
108
is there more continuity or change in the dynamics of intergenerational relationships over time?
more continuity than change
109
describe structural ambivalence
the claim that society's structures do not make clear how family members should behave
- tension between parents and their adult children can increase the extent to which they experience ambivalence
110
what are some examples of the affects of positive parent-child relationships on the parent?
- increase well-being
- less likely to feel lonely or depressed
- greater life satisfaction
111
define contingency theory
proposes that parents help their adult children who need it most, particularly in a financial sense
112
define sandwich generation
proposes that midlife caregivers are sandwiched between their aging parents and their teenaged children
--> midlife caregivers are less likely to engage in healthy behaviours
113
define helicopter parents
parents who supposedly smother and overprotect dependent children (regardless of the child's age)
114
describe parent-child relationships in terms of the biopsychosocial model
bio:
processes of aging and health of parents
psycho:
processes including emotions, identity, role, and closeness
social:
social expectations for normative parent-child relationship (based on culture and historical era)
115
what are some predictors of women's dissatisfaction during the transition to parenthood?
- younger age, non-white
- poor relationships with own parents
- unplanned pregnancy
- impulsivity
- greater focus on work
116
define a skip-generation family
refers to the family living situation in which children live with their grandparents and not their parents
117
what are the 5 types of grandparents?
(1) the formal grandparent
(2) the fun-seeker
(3) the surrogate parent
(4) the reservoir of family wisdom
(5) the distant figure
118
describe the formal grandparent type
follows what are believed to be the appropriate guidelines for the grand-parenting role
--> maintains interest in the grandchild but are not overly involved
--> is interested and provides gifts, but separates themselves from advice and custodial care
119
describe the fun-seeker type
prefers the leisure aspects of the role and primarily provides entertainment for the grandchild
--> playmates, takes children places, enjoys them as a source of leisure activity
120
describe the surrogate parent type
takes over the caretaking role with the child
121
describe the reservoir of family wisdom type
dispenses advice and resources, but also controls the parent generation
--> usually the grandfather / head of the family
122
describe the distant figure type
has infrequent contact with the grandchildren, appearing only on holidays and special occasions
123
describe friendship in terms of the life course perspective
- friends choose each other & continue to influence each other's lives
- in adulthood, friends help each other through life transitions, changes in health, marital relationships, residence, and work
124
what is the major dimension of close friendships?
reciprocity
--> sense of mutuality
--> give-and-take in the relationship at a deep emotional level
125
define dyadic withdrawal
the process of reducing the individual friendships of the couple
126
describe patterns of friendship
follow a developmental trajectory from formation to dissolution phases
127
describe the maintenance phase in friendship patterns
refers to the phase of 'friendship'
--> when friends sustain an active interest and involvement with each other
--> reciprocity levels are at its highest here
128
define peripheral ties
friendships that are not characterized by a high degree of closeness ; never go beyond this level
ex. neighbours, co-workers, gym friends, etc.
129
what are the different friendship styles and briefly describe them
friendship styles are the individual differences in approaches towards friendship
(1) **independent friendship style**
--> enjoy friendly relationships, but never form close/intimate friendships
(2) **discerning friendship style**
--> selective in friend choice, retains small circle
(3) **acquisitive friendship style**
--> readily able to make and retain close friendships throughout life; large social network
130
what criteria must be met before making the following statement: "working models of attachment formed in childhood carry on to adulthood"
(1) you should see the same kinds of relationships happening ; should map on to attachments in childhood
--> repetitive nature ; secure attachment in childhood predicts more secure attachments in adulthood
(2) adult relationships should reflect experiences of childhood relationships
--> ex. what it's like to be loved (similar experiences/expectations from childhood to adulthood)
--> more comfortable to experience what you already know ... why many stay in insecure relationships
131
what is the difference between the categorical view and dimensional view of attachment?
categorical view tends to place all importance on the parents
dimensional view also includes environmental factors into attachment
--> more accepting of changes in attachment (personal and situational)
--> can account for variability within each 'group' or dimension
132
did you learn
I think so
