ageing (test 1) Flashcards
1
Q
What is the science of human development?
A
it seeks to understand HOW and WHY people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time
2
Q
What is the lifespan perspective?
A
an approach to the study of human development that takes into account ALL phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood
3
Q
What are the age ranges for different stages of development?
A
infancy: 0-2 years
early childhood: 2-6 years
middle childhood: 6-11 years
adolescence: 11-18 years
emerging adulthood: 18-25 years
adulthood: 25-65 years
late adulthood: 65+ years
4
Q
What is Rowe’s and Kahn’s definition of successful ageing?
A
they define successful ageing as the optimum state to be in the absence of disease and disability, high cognitive and physical functioning, and engagement with life
5
Q
what are some problems with Rowe’s and Kahn’s definition of successful ageing?
A
- fails to take into account the sociocultural factors
- overly normative, not inclusive or those who fail to meet each criterion
- does not take into account subjective meanings by older adults (diversity)
- criteria are not well specified in the model
–> insinuates that people don’t have disabilities/diseases from the beginning
–> ignores the fact that many people come from disadvantaged backgrounds may not have the ability to achieve all 3 conditions of successful aging
6
Q
what are the parts of healthy / successful aging?
A
- exercise
- social activity (includes social engagement / community)
- diet
- genes
- productive pursuits
7
Q
what are the parts of the WHO model of active aging?
A
- economic determinants
- health and social services
- behavioural determinants
- personal determinants
- physical environment
- social determinants
8
Q
what is the WHO definition of active aging?
A
the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation, and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age
9
Q
what is Active and Healthy Aging (AHA)?
A
a concept describing if older individuals around the globe are able to achieve active aging
10
Q
what is successful cognitive aging?
A
cognitive performance that is above the average for an individual’s age group as objectively measured (able to adapt to the demands of everyday life)
11
Q
what are the parts of successful cognitive aging?
A
- higher cortical thickness
- greater brain plasticity
- higher density of white matter
- faster encoding
- ‘super-aging’ phenotype
- improved network connectivity
12
Q
what are selective experts?
A
people who pay less attention to things that aren’t personally meaningful –> become experts in a specific topic and focus on it
- keeps cognition active through aging process
13
Q
what are super agers?
A
individuals ages 80 years and older with episodic memory that is comparable to, or superior than, that of middle-aged adults
14
Q
What are the factors that promote successful aging?
A
positive psychology
- seeks to provide a greater understanding of the strengths that enable individuals and people to thrive (focus on the things in life that are good)
life satisfaction
- the overall assessment of an individual’s feelings and attitudes about their life (cognitive evaluation)
subjective well-being
- the individual’s overall sense of happiness (affective/emotional evaluation)
15
Q
What is the paradox of well-being?
A
the concept that older adults maintain high subjective well-being despite facing challenges from their objective circumstances
–> expectation of aging vs. the reality of aging can be different
–> many older adults report higher well-being than younger people
16
Q
why might older people have higher senses of well-being?
A
- may have developed coping strategies to reframe life events
- cohort effects; grew up with different expectations about their lives
- survival effects; more optimistic people have lived longer than those who have died in their generation
17
Q
what are the models of subjective well-being?
A
social indicator model:
- suggests that older adults have less and so should be unhappier
paradox of well-being:
- suggests that older adults are able to overcome objective circumstances
set point perspective:
- suggest that people’s personalities influence their level of well-being throughout life (personality determines happiness levels)
18
Q
what is an age friendly environment?
A
an environment that enables people of all ages to participate in their communities and treats everyone with respect
–> environment free of physical and social barriers
19
Q
what is the communication ecology model of successful aging?
A
Communicative ecology model of successful aging (CEMSA)
- suggests that people’s OWN way of seeing and talking about themselves can influence the way they feel about aging
(higher self-efficacy –> greater chance to age successfully)
20
Q
what are the 7 ideas of the CEMSA?
A
EXPRESS optimism about aging
DON’T USE aging as a reason for problems
AVOID applying age stereotypes to self and others
PLAN for the future
DON’T give up on new technology
LET others know ageism isn’t acceptable
DON’t be tempted by anti-aging products
21
Q
What is the biopsychosocial model?
A
this model considers elements in each area of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that impact development and aging
Biological
- physical changes
- genetics (age, gender, etc.)
Psychological
- cognition
- personality
- emotional / mental health
- beliefs & expectations
Sociocultural
- social context (interpersonal relationships, social support, community)
- history
- culture
- socioeconomics
22
Q
What are the four principles of adult development and aging?
A
(1) Changes are continuous over the lifespan
- a person’s appearance may change, but they still feel the ‘same’ (same personality as when younger)
(2) only the survivors grow old
- survivors managed to avoid the 5 major threats to a long life
(3) individuality matters
- people have different experiences that can impact their memory and brain development
- ex. hippocampal volume can be larger in a 70 year old than a 20 year old
(4) normal aging is different from disease
- losses: primary aging, secondary aging, tertiary aging
- gains: optimal aging
23
Q
what are the 5 major threats to a long life?
A
- being overweight
- drinking and driving
- eating inadequate fruits and veggies
- being physically inactive
- smoking
24
Q
What are the losses and gains of normal aging?
A
LOSSES:
primary aging:
- normal age-related changes
secondary aging:
- disease-related impairments
tertiary aging:
- rapid decline shortly before death
GAINS:
Optimal aging:
- changes that improve the individual’s functioning (things that become better with age)
25
What are the 3 categories of influences on development?
(1) normative age-graded influences
- ages that are expected to be associated with certain life events
- ex. ages when people are expected to move out, get married, have children
(2) normative history-graded influences
- events that occur to everyone in a certain time period
- ex. generational expectations ; expect all women to become mothers
(3) non-normative influences
- random events that occur throughout YOUR life
- ex. having a parent that dies when you're young, covid pandemic
26
what are the divisions of the over 65 population?
young-old (65-74)
old-old (75-84)
oldest-old (85+)
27
what are the different measures of age?
chronological age:
measured by years we have been alive
functional age:
measured by how well a person is functioning (better than chronological age)
- biological age (ex. cardiovascular functioning, bone strength, cellular aging)
- psychological age (ex. memory, learning ability, intelligence)
- social age (ex. work roles, family status)
28
what is the difference between personal aging and social aging?
personal aging:
- changes that occur within the individual ; reflects time effects on the body
social aging:
- effects of a person's exposure to changing environments
29
what is senescence?
a gradual physical decline that is related to aging
- body becomes less strong and efficient
30
what is life expectancy?
the average number of years of life that people born in a similar period of time are expected to live
31
what is life span?
the MAXIMUM age for a given species
- humans: 120 years
32
what is health adjusted life expectancy?
the number of years a person could expect to live in good health
--> AKA. 'compression of morbidity'
- illness can be reduced if people become disabled closer to the time of their death
33
which countries are expected to have the greatest life expectancy ?
countries in Asia, Africa, and europe
34
what are the PRINCIPLES associated with each of the 4 principles of adult development and aging
(1) changes are continuous over the lifespan
--> CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE
the changes that people experience in later adulthood build on the experiences they already had in earlier years
(2) only the survivors grow old
-->SURVIVOR PRINCIPLE
claims that the people who live to old age are the ones who managed to outlive the many threats that could have caused their death at earlier ages (possibly more likely to care for their health / avoid risky behaviour)
(3) individuality matters
--> INDIVIDUALITY PRINCIPLE
claims that as people age, they become more different from each other (impacts development and the self)
(4) normal aging is different from disease
- means that growing older doesn't necessarily mean growing sicker
35
what are the 3 models of developmental science?
(1) organismic model
- people are motivated to act on the world and the world responds back (any organism is the source of its own activity)
(2) mechanistic model
- people's behaviour changes gradually over time, shaped by the outside forces that cause them to adapt to their environments (ex. taking apart a computer and looking at its parts)
(3) interactionist model (similar to niche-picking)
- claims that genes and environment interact and produce their effects on people, and people shape their own development (relational view ; how different aspects interact)
36
what are the sociocultural models of development?
(1) ecological perspective
- examines multiple levels of organization within the environment (sociocultural level)
(2) life course perspective
- looks at age-related norms, roles, and attitudes as influences on individuals (social 'clock' of expectations)
37
What are the contrasting lifecourse theories?
disengagement theory
- suggests that the normal/desired course of life is for older adults to 'loosen' their social ties (ex. preparing for death)
--> old & ageist model
--> assumes old people want to stop doing the things they used to do
activity theory
- claims that older adults are better adjusted and most satisfied when they remain involved in their social roles
continuity theory
- the individual's personality determines whether activity or disengagement is optimal for them (a middle ground theory)
--> ties into niche-picking ; focusing on the things one DOES want to do
38
what is ageism?
a set of beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups based on their chronological age
39
what are the theories about where ageism comes from?
multiple jeopardy hypothesis:
- claims that older adults who fit more than one discriminated-against category (ex. women, minority group) are affected by more biases
terror management theory:
- suggests that people fear death and therefore distance themselves from older adults because they remind us of our mortality (defence mechanism against our fear of death)
modernization hypothesis:
- suggest that increasing urbanization/industrialization of western society is what causes people to devalue older adults
40
what are some theories as to why more adults aren't negatively affected by ageism?
age-as-leveller view:
- proposes that as people become older, age overrides all other 'isms'
inoculation hypothesis
- proposes that older minorities + women have become immune to ageism due to years of exposure to discrimination and stereotyping (not bothersome anymore)
41
what are the psychological models of development in adulthood?
Erikson's psychosocial development theory:
- proposes 8 psychological crises stages that roughly correspond to age periods in life ; follows the epigenetic principle
--> principle suggests that each stage builds on the previous one
--> critiques: later stages can appear at earlier ages, and vice versa
Piaget's theory of development
- claims that individuals gain in the ability to adapt to the environment through the processes of assimilation and accommodation
42
what are some biological theories of aging?
--> no single biological theory is widely accepted
programmed aging theories:
- proposes that aging and death are built into the hard-wiring of all organisms ; aging & death is part of the genetic code
--> ex. species differ in life spans, suggesting that aging is genetically determined
telomere theory:
- suggests that cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce ; telomeres will shorten with age
free radical theory of aging:
- unstable oxygen molecules are produced
random error theories:
- proposes that mutations acquired over the lifetime lead to malfunctioning of the body's cells
--> views aging as an accident resulting from cellular processes that have gone wrong
43
what do physical changes reflect?
physical changes reflect the influence of social factors, such as social class, gender, and income
44
what is the main thing that can impact aging?
lifestyle choices ***
45
what are the main changes in appearance?
- skin
- hair
46
what are the age-related changes in skin?
- fewer active hair follicles
- thinning of epidermis
- loss of elasticity & flexibility in tissue
- loss of subcutaneous fat
- age spots (due to sun-exposure ; photoaging)
47
when are the first signs of ageing usually?
around 30 years old, skin starts becoming thinner and less flexible
by age 60, faces are wrinkled
48
what are the layers of the skin & their purpose?
epidermis (outermost layer of skin)
- covers the tissue
dermis (middle layer)
- made of connective tissue / nerve cells / hair follicles
- provides the skin flexibility and elasticity (retain elasticity)
subcutaneous / fat layer (bottommost)
- provides opacity and smoothing curves of the body
--> aging: layer will start to thin and provide less support for the layers above it (causes wrinkling and sagging)
49
what are the age-related changes with hair?
greying of hair
- number of pigmented hairs decrease, number of unpigmented hairs increase
hair loss/thinning
- decrease in hair follicles
- androgenetic alopecia: causes hair follicles to stop producing thick hair
50
what are the major changes in body build?
- height
- body shape
51
what are the changes in height?
people get shorter with age
--> due to loss of bone material in the vertabrae / spine
--> causes spine to weaken, collapse, and shorten in length
52
what are the age-related changes in body shape?
- fat free mass (FFM) / lean tissue decreases
- BMI (body mass/fat index) increases
--> exercise can offset the effects on body build
53
What are the major age-related changes in mobility?
- muscles
- bones
- joints
54
What are the age-related changes in muscle?
sarcopenia: the progressive age-related loss of muscle mass and strength
- loss of muscle mass
- number & size of muscle fibres decrease
- speed & strength decreases
- decreased mobility
55
what are the best preventative measures for sarcopenia?
strength training with free weights or resistance machines
--> muscle training means that stronger muscles exert more pull on the bones
56
what are the age-related changes in bone?
- increase rate of bone destruction
- loss of bone mineral content
- at greater risk for breaks
--> bone remodelling process is not as efficient as when young (bone remodelling: old cells are destroyed and replaced by new cells)
57
what are the age-related changes to joints?
- cartilage protecting the joints begins to degenerate (loss of articular cartilage)
- fibres in joints become less flexible
--> joints do not benefit from constant use (causes them to wear out)
58
what are the major age-related changes of vital bodily functions?
- cardiovascular system
- urinary system
- digestive system
59
what are the age-related changes of the cardiovascular system?
- decline in cardiac output --> walls of left ventricle (chamber that pumps oxygenated blood to the body) begin to lose they ability to contract enough ; decrease in efficient distribution of blood
- plaque build-up in the arteries
- decline in aerobic capacity (max. amount of O2 that can be delivered through the blood)
- decrease efficiency of lipid metabolism
60
what are the age-related changes of the urinary system?
- decrease in nephrons (cells that filter and cleanse the blood metabolic waste)
- change in blood flow through the kidneys
- decrease in the ability to raise and lower urine concentration
- decrease in elasticity of bladder tissue (less effective retaining / expelling urine)
61
what is urge incontinence?
a form of urinary incontinence where the individual experiences a sudden need to urinate, and may leak urine
62
what is stress incontinence?
when individuals are unable to retain urine while engaging in some form of physical exertion
--> treatment: exercise, Kegel exercises
63
what are the age-related changes of the digestive system?
- decreased saliva production (less efficient processing of food)
- decreased ability of the lower jaw
- decreased secretion of gastric juices (slower digestion)
- decreased liver volume
--> all can lead to being malnourished
64
what are the major age-related changes to the bodily control systems?
- endocrine system
- immune system
65
what are the age-related changes to the endocrine system?
changes to the release of certain hormones (releasing more or less)
66
what are the important brain areas of the endocrine system?
- hypothalamus
- anterior pituitary gland
--> main control centres of the endocrine system
67
what hormones are controlled by the hypothalamus/pituitary gland, and how are they affected by the aging process?
hypothalamus-releasing factors (HRFs)
- regulates the secretion of hormones produced by the pituitary gland
growth hormone (GH)
- produced by pituitary
- with age, GH will have a decline in the somatotropin axis --> loss of bone mineral content, strength, exercise tolerance
cortisol (stress hormone)
- glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis suggests that aging causes dangerous increases in cortisol levels
thyroid hormones
- controls the rate of metabolism
- with age, BMR begins to slow down (risk of weight gain)
melatonin
- shifts in the circadian rhythm
DHEA
- andropause (men) ; declines of sex hormone testosterone
female hormonal changes
- menopause (women) ; declines
68
what are age-related changes of the immune system?
cells lose the ability to perform effectively (less able to fight against infections)
69
what are the major age-related changes of the nervous system?
70
what is the neuronal fallout model?
hypothesis that individuals progressively lose brain tissue over the life span because neutrons do not have the ability to replace themselves when they die
71
what is the plasticity model?
proposes that neutrons that remain alive are able to take over the function of those that die
--> compensate for declines in other brain regions (not as efficient as before)
72
what does the electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?
electrical activity in the brain
--> shows brain waves when person does a mental task
73
what does computed axial tomography (CAT) measure?
provides images (brain slices) of fluid filled areas
--> important when looking for structural damage
74
what does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measure?
uses radio waves to make a picture of the brain on the tissue's water content
75
what does functioning magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measure?
shows changes in the brain over the course of a mental activity
--> shows the brain areas involved in mental tasks
76
what does diffuse tensor imaging (DTI) measure?
shows the quality of connections across brain regions (looks at white matter)
77
what does positron emission tomography (PET) measure?
detects radioactive compound (injected) as it passes through the brain
--> shows blood flow, O2, concentration of brain chemicals
78
what are the age-related changes of brain structures?
- major effects on the prefrontal and temporal cortex
- hippocampus becomes smaller (decrease in ability to consolidate memories)
- white matter hypertensities (WMH)
79
what are the age-related changes to sleep?
- changes in circadian rhythm (changes in sleep patterns/behaviour)
- broken up/shallow sleeps
- decrease in REM sleep
- tend to become more of a 'morning' person
- increased risk of sleep-wake disorders
80
what are some ways to offset the age-related changes of sleep?
- exercise in the morning
- avoid napping
- avoid late night reading / use of phone / tv
81
what is sleep apnea?
a disorder in which the individual becomes temporarily unable to breathe while asleep (period of snoring and choking)
82
what are the age-related changes of internal temperature?
more at risk for dysthermia (and dying from it)
- changes in ability to maintain core body temperature or adjust internal body temperature to outside conditions
83
what is dysthermia?
a condition in which the individual shows and excessive raising of body temperature (hyperthermia) or excessive lowering of body temperature (hypothermia)
- for hyperthermia: older adults w/ heart disease are more at-risk
- for hypothermia: adults with impaired ability to maintain body temp are more at-risk
84
what are the age-related changes to sensation and perception? (which major areas?)
- vision
- hearing
-smell / taste
- balance
85
what are the age-related changes in vision?
- more likely to have loss of visual acuity (seeing details from far away)
- greater sensitivity to glare/light (loss of dark adaptation)
- more at-risk for visual disorders / impairments (ex. glaucoma, cataracts)
86
what are the age-related effects on hearing?
progressive loss of hearing ability
--> more at risk for presbycusis and tinnitus
87
what is presbycusis?
degenerative changes to the cochlea or auditory nerve leading from the cochlea to the brain (loss of hearing high-pitched sounds)
88
what is tinnitus?
symptom in which the person perceives sounds in the head or ear (ringing) when there is no external source
89
what are the age-related changes in balance?
- changes in balance and motor control
- unsteady in their gait (loss of balance when walking) --> can lead to 'fear of falling' cycle (restricting movement which may lead to falling again)
- more at-risk for dizziness and vertigo
- more vestibular disturbances
90
what are the age-related changes to smell and taste?
- shrinking of / decrease in olfactory receptors
--> loss of smell sensitivity
- decreased chomosensation receptors
91
what are the disorders of the musculoskeletal system?
- osteoarthritis
- osteoporosis
92
what is osteoarthritis?
most common form of arthritis; affects the joints in the hips, knees, neck, lower back, and small joints of the hand
--> individual will experience pain and loss of movement
93
what is arthritis?
the general term for conditions affecting the joints and surrounding tissues that can cause pain, stiffness, and swelling in joints and other connective tissues
94
why does osteoarthritis occur?
often due to repeated overuse of the joints;
causes....
- thinning of the cartilage (less cushion for the end of the bones in joints as they rub together)
- accumulation of bone spurs
- synovial fluid loses its shock-absorption properties
95
what are forms of treatment for osteoarthritis?
- injection of synthetic material into joint (replace loss of synovial fluid)
- injection of sodium hyaluronate into the joint
- total replacement of the affected joint (when injections no longer alleviate pain)
- individualized exercise --> specifically strengthen the muscles around the joint and stretch the tendons
96
what is osteoporosis?
a disease that occurs when the bone mineral density reaches the point that is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean
--> affects the bone strength and limits a person's ability to do daily tasks without pain or restriction
97
why does osteoporosis occur?
people lose bone mineral content throughout adulthood
- loss of bone mineral content occurs due to an imbalance between thee rates of bone resorption and bone growth
98
what are the risk and protective factors for osteoporosis?
risk factors:
- white, underweight, petite women (at greatest risk)
- excessive use of alcohol
- history of cigarette smoking
protective factors:
- black or hispanic ethnicities
- intake of adequate amounts of calcium (ex. dairy, green leafy vegetables, tofu, salmon)
- intake of food high in protein, magnesium, potassium, and vitamins (K, B, D)
- exercise and physical activity ; especially resistance training with weights
99
what are some treatments for osteoporosis?
- exercise ; resistance training
- medications (ex. bisphosphonate) --> slows down or stops bone loss, increases bone density, reduces fracture risk (however, may be significant side effects)
100
what are neurocognitive disorders?
a condition in which an individual experiences a loss of cognitive function severe enough to interfere with normal daily activities and social relationships
101
what is dementia?
a general loss of cognitive abilities (neurocognitive diseases)
102
what is amnesia?
main symptoms of profound memory loss
can involve:
- an inability to learn
- difficulty remembering information
103
what are the types of amnesia?
retrograde: difficulty remembering information before the damage/trauma
anterograde: difficulty remembering/consolidating information after the damage/trauma
104
what are some different types of neurocognitive disorders?
- alzheimer's disease
- parkinson's disease
- vascular neurocognitive disorder
- frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder
- neurocognitive disorder with Lewy bodies
105
what is Alzheimer's disease?
a disease where the individual suffers progressive and irreversible neuronal death (main symptoms of memory loss)
106
what are the psychological symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
--> symptoms evolve over time
- earliest symptoms: occasional memory loss of recent events or familiar tasks
- later symptoms: personality and behaviour changes
- advanced stage symptoms: loss in ability to perform simple tasks or basic functions
107
what are the biological changes associated with Alzheimer's?
amyloid plaques:
- formation of abnormal deposits of protein fragments (beta-amyloid) in the brain (does not dissolve)
neurofibrillary tangles:
- abnormally twisted fibres (made of tau protein) within the neurons in the brain
108
how do amyloid plaques form?
- the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gets stuck inside the neuron; largest part remains outside the neuron
- secretase (which normally trims the APP outside the neuron) is damaged --> causing it to cut APP in the wrong places
- causes the beta-amyloid-42 (string of amino acids) to form
109
How do neurofibrillary tangles form?
- the tau protein plays a role in maintaining the stability of the microtubules that form the support structure of axons
- tau gets changed chemically (unknown cause)
- tau loses ability to separate and support the microtubules
- tubules wind around each other and can't properly function
- leads to poor communication between neurons (dysfunctional axons)
110
what are the theories about the causes of Alzheimer's disease?
main theory: genetic theory
- suggests that genetic abnormalities are responsible for neuronal death (helps predict early-onset)
- claims that certain genes are involved in the disease; specifically Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene
--> ApoE carries cholesterol throughout body and binds to beta-amyloid (possible role in plaque formation)
newer theories consider: genome-wide approach
- protective factors have a large role in the development of Alzheimer's disease --> belief that higher mental activity during early adulthood & exercise are protective factors
111
when is a diagnosis of neurocognitive disease made?
when there is significant and progressive cognitive decline in one or more of the following areas:
- social cognition
- memory
- aphasia (loss of language ability)
- apraxia (loss of ability to carry out coordinated movements)
- agnosia (loss of ability to recognize familiar objects)
- disturbance in executive functioning (loss of ability to plan and organize)
112
what are the medical treatment options for Alzheimer's disease?
acetylcholinesterase medicine
- acetylcholinesterase destroys acetylcholine after it gets release in the synaptic cleft --> this decreases the amount available to hippocampal neurons; leading to memory loss
- this medicine is an inhibitor; slows down the release of acetylcholinesterase and therefore the breakdown of acetylcholine --> maintaining it at normal levels in the brain
* these medications only treat symptoms for a LIMITED time; not a cure *
113
what are psychosocial treatment options for Alzheimer's disease?
providing caregivers with important knowledge:
- teach caregivers behavioural methods that will help to maximize the patient's ability to remain independent for longer
- teach caregivers to follow a strict daily schedule
- teach caregivers to identify situations in which the patient becomes disruptive (learning the signs / things that cause them to become upset and modify them accordingly)
- prepare caregivers on what to expect as the disease progresses
--> all these tips are aimed to reduce aggressive patient behaviours and caregiver burden (the stress that caregivers experience in the daily management of the individual)
114
what is vascular neurocognitive disorder?
progressive loss in cognitive functioning due to damage to the arteries supplying the brain
- caused by ischemic attacks --> numerous minor strokes (infarcts) that clog or burst arteries and interrupt blood flow to the brain
- develops more rapidly than Alzheimer's disease
115
what is Parkinson's disease?
symptoms of motor disturbances (ex. tremors), speech impediments, slowing of movement, muscular rigidity, and inability to maintain balance
