Relationships Paper 2 ERQs Flashcards
Co-operation & Competition Studies
Tajfel 70s - competition
Sherif 60s Robbers Cave - cooperation & competition
Aronson 70s Jigsaw Classroom - cooperation
Prejudice & Discrimination Studies
Tajfel 70s - prejudice & discrimination
Sherif 60s Robbers Cave - prejudice & discrimination
Steele & Aronson 90s - prejudice
Origins of Conflict & Conflict Resolution Studies
Sherif 60s Robbers Cave - origins of conflict & resolution
Lyons-Padilla 2010s - origins of conflict
Novotny & Polonsky 2010s - origins of resolution
Context for Co-operation & Competition
- realistic conflict theory
- social identity theory
- superordinate goals
- the role of co-operation in group cohesion
- effects on individual and group performance
- comparison of co-operation and competition in groups
- methodological and ethical considerations in research
- implications of the findings
- assumptions and biases in research related to co-operation and/or competition in groups.
Sherif 60s Robbers Cave
Aim
- To investigate whether conflict will incur from fighting/competing over limited resources between groups and the effects of competition on prejudice/discrimination against out-group
- To investigate how group conflict can be overcome through working together and co-operating to achieve a shared goal/superordinate goals
- To study the natural developments of informal groups and their attitudes, norms, and prejudice to out-groups
- Realistic Conflict Theory - competition for resources will create conflict between groups // in-groups and out-groups will form prejudice against the other group
- Realistic Conflict Theory posits positively independent groups which work towards common goals with other groups will have co-operative, good intergroup relations/attitudes
- Negatively independent groups that are in competition for resources will create conflict between groups, and develop prejudice or even discrimination towards out-group
- Superordinate goals - gaols that are achieved by co-operation of two or more people working together
Participants/Research
- field
- 22 white, american, boys
Method & Results
- The boys were randomly allocated into 1 of 2 groups
- The groups were kept separate, and boys were given time to group bond and form group identity—group names, flags, etc.
- Then the groups were reintroduced through competition over resources and rewards to one group and the expense of the other group — generating conflict
- After many games the boys escalated to developed prejudice to the out-group due to the conflict, and competition, which escalated to discrimination through name calling to the other group
- The shared prejudice increased the in-group identity, and then escalated hostility towards out-group, demonstrating conflict and prejudice then discrimination arise from competition over resources and group identity
- During a cooling off period the boys listed favourable characteristics for their in-group, and unfavourable ones for the out-group
0 To reduce the group conflict, researchers set-up tasks which had the 2 groups work together and co-operate to reach a superordinate goal, which would facilitate positive contact with the out-group, reconceptualising their us vs. them mentality
- The superordinate goals resulted in less prejudice descriptions of the out-group, and no longer intergroup hostility
Implications
- Realistic conflict theory is validated as it competition generates conflict and out-group prejudice as they are seen as a threat, which also increases in-group identity from bonding over a common enemy, which may escalate into discrimination
-Superordinate goals are an opportunity to achieve conflict resolution, as they promote co-operation, and reduce prejudice through positive contact
- Intergroup conflict and prejudice may emerge through competition over scare resources
- May provide explanation for origins of racial prejudice and discrimination between ethnic groups as a result of competition
Evaluation:
Pros:
- high ecological validity
Cons:
- low control of confounding variables
- deception
- undue psychological and physical harm
- sampling bias thus low generalisability to adult conflicts and to more complex ethnic conflicts
Tajfel 70s Study
Aim
- investigate out-group prejudice after arbitrary placement into groups
Participants/Research
- true
- 64 boys — aged 14 to 15
Method
- participants were asked to estimate the number of dots within an area, and were placed into groups based on whether they overestimated the no. Dots or underestimated
- each participant was tested by asking to reward certain amount of money to their in-group which was connected to a certain about of money to the out-group
- these options were shown in matrices with 2 main conclusions
(1) most in-group profit, w/ more money given to out-group
(2) maximum difference between in & out group’s profit, however, this was the lowest possible amount in-group would receive
Results
- the boys would consistently choose option 2, giving the least money to their in-group, to disadvantage out-group at any cost
Implications
- even when there is no reason for out-group discrimination, people are still inclined to in-group favouritism
Evaluation:
Pros:
- controlled variables as a true experiment
- internal validity
- the study has been replicated
Cons:
- low ecological validity which may not reflect behaviour in complex real-life
- oversimplify the complexity of intergroup discrimination
- potential demand characteristics as boys could have interpreted the task as competitive exercise
- sampling bias
Aronson 70s Jigsaw Classroom Study
Aim
- To investigate whether co-operation and co-operative tasks would generate conflict resolution of prejudice and discrimination between black and white students
- As schools in the US became desegregated, there was lots of conflict between the white and black students due to prejudice and stereotypes against the black students
- Co-operative learning through a style of teaching and classroom activity called “Jigsaw Classroom” sought to reduce inter-group hostility, conflict, and prejudice/discrimination through co-operation
Research
- Field experiment
Method
- The Jigsaw Classroom facilitated co-operation and collaboration through making the students reliant on one another for learning, as each student would have their own key information
- Each student would learn their piece of information to then share, teach, and contribute their learning to the rest of the group
- This means that other group members have to actively listen to each student explain to learn
- If a student is shy, other students are incentivised to be encouraging in order to gather all the information needed from the student which facilitates empathy, and kindness, resulting from the co-operation and collaboration
- Since every student contributes to the learning process and shared goal, each student is made valuable, and valued by others in order to reach their shared goal
Results
- Comparing Aronson’s Jigsaw Classroom to traditional classrooms, the stereotyping and prejudice between racial groups had decreased significantly
- Additionally, Jigsaw Classroom students had better performance on exams as co-operative learning better facilitated learning
- Jigsaw Classroom students also were noted to have greater self-esteem likely due to the supportive environment generated by values of co-operation which result in kindness, and encouragement, and respect. But also likely due to reduction in prejudice and discrimination
- Aronson’s research shows that co-operation in classroom environment effectively reduces stereotypes, and prejudice, due to positive contact with out-group, and improves friendships and group relationships in the classroom.
Implications
- Co-operation facilitates positive contact with out-group which allows for prejudices to be dismantled
- Co-operation facilitates teamwork to reach a common goal which in turn requires kindness, encouragement, and value of each student which then improves self-esteem, learning, and reduces bullying
Context for Prejudice & Discrimination
components to prejudice are:
- affective (relating to ones emotions and feelings evoked in a person when encountering the group they are prejudice against)
- cognitive (thoughts, & stereotypes people associate with out-group)
- behavioural (discrimination aspect of prejudice)
Discrimination is where people act out their prejudice thoughts and biases onto the group the person is prejudice against.
- causes: social identity theory, positive distinctiveness, stereotypes
- consider alternative explanations too
Steele & Aronson 90s prejudice Study
MAKE SURE REFERENCE TO GROUP DYNAMICS IS SUPER CLEAR
Aim
- To investigate the effects of stereotype threat on the test performance of African Americans
Participants/Research
- true
- 114 black and white students
- Half were induced stereotype threat
- Half were neutral for control
Method
- The participants performed a 30-minute standardised test of verbal ability
- The participants in experimental condition incurring stereotype threat were told the test diagnosed intellectual ability
- The control condition were told the test was a problem solving exercise
- Theory: linking the test to intellectual ability may activate existing racial stereotypes causing black participants to face the threat of fulfilling the stereotype
Results
- The performance between black and white participants were equivalent in the control condition
- However, black participants performed worse than white participants in the stereotype threat condition
Implications
- The expectation of negative racial stereotypes creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where participants subconsciously fulfil the stereotype
Lyons-Padilla 2010s origins of conflict Study
Aim
- To investigate the effect of acculturation strategies of Muslim immigrants on mental health
Participants/Research
- correlational survey
- Over 200 Muslim immigrants from Pakistan in US between 18-35
Method
- Survey consisted of questions about acculturation strategies, significance loss (feeling purposelessness in life), and support of islamic extremism
Results
- The integrated immigrants had better mental health and cultural identity outcomes
- The immigrants with radical/extremist Islamic views correlated with significance loss which comes from the marginalisation component of acculturation
- Marginalised immigrants experienced loss of personal and cultural identity, and excluded themselves from cultural gatherings as well
- The immigrants who experienced more significance loss were correlated to be more likely sympathetic towards radical Islamic beliefs potentially due to the purposelessness of significance loss which is caused by marginalisation acculturation strategy
Implications
- Increasing immigration to Western countries due to globalisation affects mental health by creating significance loss in the immigrants whose acculturation strategies consist of marginalisation ,
- As globalisation increases immigration of local cultures to more globally dominant cultures such as US, the globalised immigration affects the mental health of immigrants due to their acculturation strategies
- Acculturation, promoted by globalisation, if consists of marginalisation strategy may cause significance loss which is a risk factor of radicalisation of Muslim immigrants (Kruglanski et al, 2014), as immigrants who feel disconnected to local and global cultures, and thus often also experience prejudice or discrimination, may potentially seek connection in extremism
- As globalisation has coincided with Islamic extremism and terrorism (Lutz and Lutz, 2015), the significance loss resulting from marginalisation acculturation strategies and prejudice and discrimination against increasing immigrants due to globalisation, may possibly cause radicalisation and extremism
Context for Origins of Conflict & Conflict Resolution
origins of conflict
- competition
- prejudice/discrimination
- realistic conflict theory
- social identity & minimal group paradigm
- Relative deprivation theory (feeling that you are generally “worse off” than the people you associate with) Lyons
origins of resolution
- cooperation
- subordinate goals
- intergroup contact theory
- cooperative learning (jigsaw)
role of:
- egocentrism
- ethnocentrism
- culture
- alternative & intersecting explanations
Novotny & Polonsky 2010s origins of resolution Study
Aim
- To investigate whether prejudice against an out-group will reduce from positive contact with out-group
- To investigate the validity of the theory that prejudice can be reduced by positive contact experiences with minority group through anxiety reduction, empathy, and reconceptualisation of minority/out-group, as Integrated Threat Theory posits that prejudice results from perceived threats of an out-group to an in-group, however positive contact will allow majority/in-group to realise the out-group is not threatening
Participants/Research
- Correlational study based on surveys
- 716 students across Czech and Slovak cities
- Stratified sample, then random selection based on university major
Method
- Participants filled out a survey
In Czech Republic and Slovakia there is minimal interaction with Muslims due to limited immigration
- Survey divided into 4 sections: knowledge of Islam, attitudes/opinions on Islam/Muslims, geographical knowledge of Islam, personality of participants
Results
- The less the participants knew about Islam, the more prejudice the participant had against Muslims and the more threatened they felt about Muslims
- The more participants travelled to Muslim countries, and had personal contact with Muslims, the less prejudice held against Muslims
Implications
- Education and personal contact decreases prejudice of an out-group
Increased globalisation and understanding and interaction with other cultures may decrease prejudice of out-group cultures
- Increasing immigration, travel, cross-cultural connection due to globalisation may decrease prejudice through positive contact with out-groups which may not have occurred without globalisation
- However, due to globalisation, predominantly favouring Western values, local, indigenous cultures with less global dominance may remain neglected and thus not receive less prejudice attitudes as globalisation does not uplift smaller cultures
Evaluation:
Pros:
- Application of Integrated Threat and Intergroup Contact Theories
- factual knowledge and intergroup contact can reduce negative perceptions can be used for conflict resolution
- relevant in areas with limited Muslim populations, where stereotypes and prejudice may be more prevalent due to lack of exposure.
Method Pros:
- large sample size meaning powerful statistical results
- a composite score for objective knowledge about Islam based on factual questions
- provides a quantitative measure of knowledge, which allows for correlation with attitudes
Method Cons:
- the survey design restricts the ability to determine causality; a longitudinal design would be better suited for assessing causal relationships
- Surveys are also open to social desirability effect and demand characteristics.
- self-reported data & abstract—unclear how these ppt would react in an actual interaction with Muslims
- factual knowledge does not necessarily equate to cultural empathy
- homogeneity in sample limits generalisations. University students tend to travel more, be more urban and be of a certain socioeconomic status.
Ethical Considerations of Research into Group Dynamics Studies
Sherif 60s Robbers Cave (parental consent etc)
Steele & Aronson 90s
Lyons-Padilla 2010s (positive, informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality) (studying other cultures)
- the role of informed consent when studying groups
- why deception is often used in studies of group dynamics
- the difficulties of ensuring confidentiality in social psychology research, especially in research into group dynamics
- the potential for psychological and physical harm and associated restrictions on research design decisions as to why certain ethical guidelines were/were not followed changes over time in adherence to ethical standards/guidelines
Research Methods into Group Dynamics Studies
Jigsaw - field experiment (?)
Lyons-Padilla 2010s - correlational study/survey
Novotny & Polonsky 2010s - correlational study/survey
