Cognitive Paper 1 SAQs

Question 1

Cognitive processing Ethics Study

Answer 1

Chou & Edges 2010s

Question 2

Cognitive processing Method Study

Answer 2

Chou & Edges 2010s

Question 2

Models of memory Study

Answer 2

Peterson & Peterson 50s

Question 2

Schema theory Study

Answer 2

Bartlett 30s

Question 3

Reliability of cognitive processes Ethics Study

Answer 3

Chou & Edges 2010s

Question 4

Thinking and decision-making Study

Answer 4

Alter 2000s

Question 5

Reliability of cognitive processes Method Study

Answer 5

Chou & Edges 2010s

Question 6

Reconstructive memory Study

Answer 6

Bartlett 30s

Question 7

Biases in thinking and decision-making Study

Answer 7

Chou & Edges 2010s

Question 8

Emotion & Cognition Study

Answer 8

Neisser & Harsch 90s

Question 9

Chou & Edges 2010s Ethical Considerations

Question 10

Chou & Edges 2010s Methodology

Question 11

Alter 2000s Thinking and decision-making

Answer 11

Theory
- Thinking & decision-making consists of using information to form judgements/make a conclusion.
- dual-processing model of thinking posits 2 types of thinking & decision-making systems;
- system 1 (rational thinking (controlled)) goal-orientated, high cognitive effort, intentional, logical/analytical thinking.
- system 2 (intuitive thinking (automatic)) automatic, low cognitive effort, every-day trivial decisions, quick-thinking thus influenced by heuristics, and biases, cognitive shortcuts

Aim
- investigate the influence of system 1 thinking or system 2 thinking in inducing accurate judgements to questions with intuitive yet biased answers

Participants/Research
- true
- uni volunteers
- 2 groups

Method
- participants were given a test with questions which had a simple answer which was counter-intuitively incorrect however, with logic and effort the actual correct answer could be achieved
- to activate system 1, half the participants were given a test in an illegible font to active cognitive effort
- to activate system 2, the test was in a legible font, thus permitting inutive, easy, answers

Results
- The participants in the illegible group got more answers correctly
- With legible font 90% answered at least 1 question incorrectly

Implications
- as system 1 and effort is activated in the illegible group, their responses were more accurate and logically sound
- as more cognitive effort to understand the questions triggered rational thinking, which resulted in logical thinking to overcomes biases

• as system 2, and susceptibility to biases is activated in the legible group, their responses were incorrect
• less cognitive effort led to system 2 thinking consisting of mental shortcuts and thus privy to biases of the questions

Question 12

Chou & Edges 2010s Biases in thinking and decision-making

Answer 12

Theory
- Intuitive thinking results in cognitive shortcuts which produce judgements susceptible to bias.
- Example of biases in thinking and decision include availability heuristic wherein cognition/judgements of events are exaggerated as more examples of the event is more readily available in memory

Aim
- investigate influence of social media on distorting perceptions of one’s social life due to availability heuristic
- investigate whether social media usage induces avaliability heuristic

Participants/Research
- over 400 US students
- Survey

Method
- survey collated: how long participants spent on FB a day, average time spent with real life friends
- then participants used 10 point scale to measure agreement with statements about one’s social life such as “many of my friends are happier than me”

Results
- participants who spent more time on FB were more likely to feel other people were happier than them
- participants who spent more time seeing their real life friends were less likely to believe their friends were happier than them

Implications
- The more time spent on FB means that examples of people having fun social lives were more available and thus more likely to activate availability heuristic to disproportionately compare themselves and assume less happiness of their own lives

Question 13

Bartlett 30s Schema theory

Answer 13

Theory
- Schema theory posits that the brain structures knowledge, information, beliefs, and expectations through mental representations (cognitive schemas) of those ideas
- Schema frameworks are developed from past experience of the stimulus & may result in reconstructive memory of information which is not conducive to the mental framework—as this attempts to match unfamiliar ideas into a familiar framework.

Aim
- investigate the distortion of foreign stories and information due to mismatch of encoding into Western schema framework

Participants/Research
- true experiment
- British people (unaware of native American concepts)

Method
- researchers would tell participants Native American legend w/ foreign concepts & names
- the participants were then asked to retell the legend after a few days, weeks, then few months later

Results
- the participants increasingly forgot parts of the legend with time usually dissimilar to western conventions
- with more time names & concepts of the story also converted to more Western concepts
- e.g. hunting for seals to fishing

Implications
- new information & foreign concepts are altered to fit into pre-existing schemas in order to be remembered

Question 14

Bartlett 30s Reconstructive memory

Answer 14

Theory
- Human memory is susceptible to distortions & reconstructions due to deterioration with time, distortions from external sources, or mismatches in knowledge and memory processing
- Memory can be distorted and reconstructed during processing due to schema processing
- Reconstructive memory as a result of schema processing occurs when memory is processed to fit into prior schema frameworks which are mismatched to the nature of the incoming memory

Aim
- investigate reconstructive memory of foreign information into a Western schema framework

Participants/Research
- true experiment
- British people (unaware of native American concepts)

Method
- researchers would tell participants Native American legend w/ foreign concepts & names
- the participants were then asked to retell the legend after a few days, weeks, then few months later

Results
- the participants increasingly forgot parts of the legend with time usually dissimilar to western conventions
- with more time names & concepts of the story also converted to more Western concepts
- e.g. hunting for seals to fishing

Implications
- schema processing causes reconstructive memory in that information will transform to conform to Western schema expectations in order to be remembered
- foreign concepts are altered to fit into pre-existing schemas in order to be remembered

Question 15

Peterson and Peterson 50s Models of memory

Answer 15

Theory
- memory models are a representation to conceptualise the mechanisms & processes behind human memory retrieval & encoding

• Multi-store memory posits 3 memory stores: sensory, short-term, long-term
• Sensory stores {broken up into sensory registers} is information incident on our senses.
• Capacity: unlimited
• Duration: milliseconds, *depends on the sensory register type
• Transfer: attention on sensory information transfers information to short-term
• Short-term store {working memory / attention span} is readily available, and consciously thought of information
• Capacity: limited information <10 pieces held in channel capacity
• Duration: 15-30 seconds
• Transfer: repeated rehearsal in rehearsal buffer will transfer information to long-term OR if not rehearsed it will decay
• Displacement: As channel capacity reaches maximum capacity, older information is displaced and decayed for incoming information
• Long-term store {unconscious information not constantly rehearsed to be known}
• Capacity: unlimited
• Duration: life-long
• Retrieval: long-term store information must be retrieved into the short-term store to become accessible and mentally manipulated
• Working memory explains short term component of MSM
• Working memory is small, readily available information that’s used/processed/manipulated for the execution of cognitive tasks drawn from long-term memory
• abstract working memory component (e.g. problem solving tasks)
• visuospatial sketchpad working memory component (e.g. visual information, navigation)
• phonological loop component (auditory information, music)
• episodic buffer component retrieves pieces of the information from the long-term memory into working memory as the whole information may be too large to process (e.g. an entire song is broken up into pieces). this prevents cognitive overload and allows only relevant information to take channel capacity
• central executive directs all these components to focus the working memory

Aim
- To investigate the duration of short-term memory and its components

Participants/Research
- true
- over 20 psychology students

Method
- Participants were asked to recall meaningless three-consonant syllables (hard to memorise) after varying time intervals
- participants had to count backwards during the time interval to prevent rehearsal

Results
- The longer the time interval was the less syllables were recalled
- 80% of syllables were recalled after the shortest: 3 second time delay
- 10% of trigrams were recalled after longest: 18 second delay

Implications
- MSM: short-term store has limited duration for echoic memory, as more information was recalled with a shorter time delay
- supports MSM that short-term store has short duration, and that without repetition & rehearsal information cannot be transferred to long-term

• Working: phonological loop in working memory is being used to recall the trigrams, however, as during the time intervals the central executive is focused on the abstract problem solving task of counting down, the working memory/central executive is no longer activating the phonological loop, thus more of the information is lost

Question 16

Neisser & Harsch 90s Emotion & Cognition

Answer 16

Theory
- flashbulb memories - memories of emotional events - often have greater retention & vividness due to the strong emotions connected with an event which cause the encoding of the event to be strengthened.

Aim
- investigate the influence of the emotional aspect of flashbulb memories in accuracy, vividity, and retention of the memory

Participants/Research
- over 100 americans
- true experiment

Method
- asked to recall 1986 space shuttle challenger disaster 24 hours after event & then 2 years after

Results
- participants recalled the shuttle disaster with vividity & conviction 2 years later,
- however the memory had on average distorted by 40% in accuracy

Implications
- flashbulb memories can deteriorate in accuracy like normal memories however maybe emotion has a role in strengthening the vividity and perceived retention of memories