Relationships - Factors Affecting Attraction

Question 1

What drives partner preferences according to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 1

sexual selection: when both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances of reproductive success.

Individuals with traits that maximise reproductive success (e.g. strength, height, aggression, wide hips etc.) are more likely to survive and pass on the genes responsible for their success.

Question 2

What’s the difference between the reproductive mechanisms between female and male humans?

Answer 2

This difference (anisogamy) means that males and females use distinct strategies to choose a partner.

Males have gametes (sperm cells), which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure. Female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce.

Question 3

What’s the difference between female and male sexual selection

Answer 3

Generally males use intra-sexual selection and females use inter-sexual selection.

Question 4

Describe male sexual selection
(Man selecting a woman)

Answer 4

Intra-sexual selection: members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex.

This leads to male-female dimorphism.

Anisogamy suggests that a male’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible. Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners.

Males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else. Males are very fearful of cuckoldry.

Question 5

What is cuckholdry?

Answer 5

When a man has to raise another man’s child.

Question 6

Describe sexual selection in females
(Woman choosing a man)

Answer 6

Inter-sexual selection: members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.

Anisogamy suggests that a women’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner. Females will tend to seek a male who displays: physical health, high status, and resources. Thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.

Although this ability may have equated to muscular strength in our evolutionary past, in modern society it is more likely to relate to occupation, social class and wealth.

Question 7

What are the strengths of the evolutionary explanation of partner preferences?

Answer 7

• Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.
• Clark and Hatfield (1989): male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University (of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them. About 50% of both men and women agreed to the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.

Question 8

What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?

Answer 8

• The evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free-will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.
• Evolutionary approaches to mate preferences are socially sensitive in that they promote traditional (sexist) views regarding what are ‘natural’ male and female behaviors which do not apply to modern society. Women are now more career orientated and independent therefore will not look for resourceful partners as much as they may have had to in decades past. Additionally, the availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
• Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages.

Question 9

What are the factors affecting attraction?

Answer 9

• evolutionary explanations
• self-disclosure
• physical attractiveness
• filter theory

Question 10

Define self-disclosure

Answer 10

Several factors affect attraction in romantic relationships, one of these factors is self-disclosure.
This is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.

Question 11

What theory is self-disclosure part of?

Answer 11

Self-disclosure is a central concept in social penetration theory proposed by Altman and Taylor (1973)

Question 12

Explain Social Penetration Theory

Answer 12

• By gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
• Therefore, self-disclosure will increase attraction.
• As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase. In the beginning, people only disclose superficial details about themselves, such as hobbies and interests, and gradually reveal more intimate details, such as family values and difficult experiences.

Question 13

Discuss how the levels of self-disclosure can impact attractiveness

Answer 13

• Self-disclosing too quickly (e.g. on a first date) can reduce attraction.
• People expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give. The more self-disclosure someone gives, the more self-disclosure they expect in return. This is known as reciprocal self-disclosure.

Question 14

What are the strengths of self-disclosure?

Answer 14

• Research by Altman and Taylor (1973) supports the theory of self-disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable.
• Tal-Or (2015) conducted research which agrees with the fundamental concept of self-disclosure being a gradual process that can affect attraction for romantic relationships. Analysis of reality TV shows like Big Brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on. They preferred the contestant who self-disclosed gradually.
• Kito (2010) found research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. Kito investigated Japanese and American students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual. This increases the cultural validity of the theory.

Question 15

What are the weaknesses of self-disclosure?

Answer 15

• Sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the LEVEL of self-disclosure received is the BEST PREDICTOR of liking and loving, rather than the AMOUNT of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.
• It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self-disclosure alone. Self-disclosure might be an important element, but OTHER FACTORS are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.

Question 16

Describe physical attractiveness as a factor of attraction

Answer 16

• Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in the short-term and the long-term.
• Research has shown that physical attractiveness is also very important for females when choosing a male partner, especially in the short-term (it is less important in the long-term).
• What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.
• Important theories: halo effect , matching hypothesis

Question 17

Describe the Halo effect

Answer 17

• The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone (e.g. physical attractiveness).
• Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy. People tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive.

Question 18

Evaluate the Halo Effect

Answer 18

• Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.
• Towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour. It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Those who scored low on the questionnaire did not value physical attractiveness. Therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors (e.g. personality).

Question 19

Describe the Matching Hypothesis

Answer 19

When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves. Physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship.

Most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive but in order to not be rejected, many people will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.

Question 20

What is the one strength of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 20

Fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the matching hypothesis by carrying out a meta-analysis of 17 studies using real-life couples. He established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.

Question 21

What are the weaknesses of the matching hypothesis

Answer 21

• Walster (1966) invited 752 first-year students at the University of Minnesota to attend a dance party. They were randomly matched to a partner; however, when students were picking up their tickets, they were secretly judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness. At the dance party, and 4 to 6 months later, students were asked whether they found their partner attractive and whether they would like to go on a second date with them. Contrary to the matching hypothesis students expressed higher appreciation of
  their partner if the partner was attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness.
• Sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Often a rebalance of traits will occur, whereby the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e.g. being rich, having a high status or great personality). This is called complex matching whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person.

Question 22

What is filter theory and who proposed it?

Answer 22

Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners. When we meet a potential partner we engage in three levels of filtering; social demography, similarity in attitude, and complementarity of needs. We tend to be attracted to those who pass through a series of filters.

Question 23

Describe the filters in filter theory

Answer 23

1. Social Demography: we screen out people based on age, sex, education, social background etc. We are more attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own.
2. Similarity in Attitude: Then we choose people who have similar attitudes to our own (similarity in
   attitude).

3.Complementarity of Needs: in the longer term, we choose people who complement our own traits
(complementarity of needs).

Question 24

What are the strengths of filter theory?

Answer 24

+ Research conducted by Taylor (2010) found evidence to support filter theory. He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 had MARRIED SOMEONE FROM THEIR OWN ETHNIC GROUP, supporting the social demography part of filter theory. Individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them.

+ Research by Hoyle (1993) supports the filter theory when looking at the importance of attitude similarity and sharing common values for attraction. Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly than actual attitude similarity. Tidwell tested this hypothesis during a speed dating event whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. He measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that PERCIEVED SIMILARITY PREDICTED ATTRACTION MORE than actual similarity.

Question 25

What are the weaknesses of filter theory?

Answer 25

• Levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples and found NO EVIDENCE that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at HOW PERMANENT the relationship was.
• Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similar social demography. Anderson (2003) found from his LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF COHABITING PARTNERS that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. At the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar. This is called EMOTIONAL CONVERGENCE.
• Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background. We might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits, and this is very apparent now, compared to the past (30 years ago).

Question 26

Define Physical Dimorphism

Answer 26

The obvious physical differences between males and females.

It is the accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness.