Memory - Models Of Memory

Question 1

Define cognitive psychology

Answer 1

Cognitive psychology is concerned with people’s thought processes and how
these affect the way in which they behave.

Question 2

Define memory

Answer 2

Memory is the process of retaining learned information, and accessing this information when it is needed. Memory is an important factor in how human beings process information

Question 3

State and explain the processes in memory

Answer 3

Coding = The way information is changed so that it can be stored in memory.
Storage = Keeping information within the memory system until it is needed.
Retrieval = Recovering information stored in the memory system when it is required.

Question 4

What are the memory stores and define them (for the MSM).
How do they differ?

Answer 4

• Sensory Register = The Sensory Register (SR) contains unprocessed impressions of information received through the senses. It has a separate sensory store for each sensory input. There is an iconic store for visual information and the echoic store for auditory information.
• Short-Term Memory = Short-Term Memory (STM) is a temporary store for information received from the SR.
• Long-Term Memory = Long-Term Memory (LTM) is a permanent store holding limitless amounts of information for long periods of time, potentially a lifetime.
• STM differs from LTM in terms of coding, capacity, duration, and how information is lost.

Question 5

Discuss coding in regards to the MSM of memory
(Talk about the experiment)

Answer 5

• Coding in the sensory register or SR is modality specific, which means that each sensory store codes information differently (iconic for visual)
• Short-term memory: Baddeley (1966) investigated coding in short-term memory STM. He gave participants 4 lists of words to recall list A contained words that sounded similar and list B had words that sound a dissimilar. List C contained words that had similar meanings and list D had words with dissimilar meanings. The experiment argued that STM is coded acoustically because when tested participants performed worse with a list and then be, but there was no difference between C and D. Therefore, he theorised that similar sounding words can become muddled.
• this experiment was repeated (same year) to test the coding of long-term memory (LTM). He tested the recall after a 20 minute delay to ensure information has passed into LTM. List C was worse than list D. There was no difference between A and B. Therefore, Baddeley (1966,) concluded that LTM is coded, semantically and organises information, according to its meaning so words with similar meanings, can become confused

Question 6

What are the evaluation points for coding (MSM)

Answer 6

Baddeley (1966)
- One strength is that the study was a laboratory experiment, so it is easy to replicate as variables have been closely controlled. This means reliability can be assessed.
- One weakness, is that the findings of the study have low ecological validity as the materials (a list of words, participants needed to recall) were artificial and the experiment was done in a laboratory setting

Question 7

discuss capacity (MSM)

Answer 7

• Sensory register: The capacity of the SR is unlimited
• short-term memory: Jacobs (1887), used a digit span test to determine the capacity of STM. He asked participants to repeat a given sequence of digits or letters immediately after they had been given it in the correct order, the sequences got longer by one each time. On average, we can hold 9.3 digits and 7.3 letters. Miller (1956), reviewed psychological research studies and concluded that the span of STM is 7+/2 and if we try to recall more information, then we have capacity for new incoming information displaces old information. he also found that people can recall five words as easily as five letters so chunking (grouping, large amounts of information into smaller groups) can help us remember more.
• Long-term memory: the capacity of LTM is unlimited

Question 8

What are the evaluation points for capacity (MSM)

Answer 8

• One advantage of Jacobs (1887) is that it was the first to acknowledge that STM capacity gradually improves with age
• One weakness is that the study was conducted a long time ago, so it may not have been done to the same scientifically rigourous standard as research today. Therefore validity of the findings is questionable.

Question 9

Discuss duration (MSM)

Answer 9

• sensory register: the duration of SR is 250 milliseconds
• short-term memory: Peterson and Peterson (1959), used nonsense trigrams ( random three consonants) to test STM duration. To prevent participants keeping this information in STM using maintenance rehearsal. They were asked to count backwards from 100 in 3s. After 3 seconds, recall was accurate 90% of the time. After 9 seconds, accuracy = 20%. After 18 seconds, accuracy = 2%. They concluded that information in STM lasts for 18-30 seconds without rehearsal before it is lost due to decay.
• Long-term memory: Bahrick (1979), tested 400 people of various ages from 17-74 on their memory of their classmates. A photo recognition test consisted of participants being shown 50 photos and deciding if they belonged to their classmates or not. In a free recall test participants were asked to list the names they could remember from the graduating class. They found 90% accuracy at identifying faces of school friends within 15 years of leaving school. After 48 years, this declined to 70%. Free recall of names was 60% accurate within 15 years of leaving school. Dropping to 30% after 48 years. Bahrick Et al (1979) concluded that the duration of LTM is potentially a lifetime, but we sometimes have retrieval failure and need retrieval cues in order to access this information.

Question 10

What are the evaluation points for duration (MSM)

Answer 10

For short-term memory:
- Peterson and Peterson (1959)
- One strength of the study is that the researchers used fixed timings for participants to count backwards from they also eliminated noise, and other factors that could have influenced memory. Therefore, the research can be said to have a high level of control using standardised procedures to make sure all participants experienced the same process.
- One weakness of this study may have been caused by interference, rather than by STM. Having a short duration it is possible that earlier learnt trigrams have become confused with the later ones.

Long-term memory:
- Bahrick et al (1979)
- One weakness of this study is that it is problematic to control for extraneous variables, such as people staying in touch after they left school or how many participants have looked in the yearbook since leaving school
- One strength of this study is that it has higher ecological validity than Peterson and Peterson (1959), as the material was more meaningful and relevant to every day life

Question 11

explain the multi store model of memory

Answer 11

• this model (MSM) was developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
• It explains how information flows from one memory store to another
• There are three permanent structures in this memory system: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM)
• Each store has a different capacity, duration, coding and loss

Question 12

Describe the first structure of the multi store model of memory

Answer 12

Sensory register:
- Environmental stimuli are received through the senses and enters SR. This is a short duration store retaining unprocessed impressions of information.
- There is an iconic store for visual information
- There is an a echoic store for auditory information
- unlimited capacity
- 250 millisecond duration
- A small fraction of information received is attended to and selected for further processing in STM. All other information is lost by decay.

Question 13

Describe the second structure of the multi store model of memory

Answer 13

Short-term memory:
- If information in the SR is attended to, it is acoustically coded into STM This means similar sounding material can be confused
- This is a temporary store for information received from the SR before it is transferred to LTM Information may be recalled, and then forgotten before it is transferred to LTM
- Limited capacity of 7 +/- 2 pieces of information. Information can be displaced by new information.
- Duration of 18 to 30 seconds
- Without rehearsal information decays very quickly
- Information can be kept in STM using maintenance rehearsal. This is known as a rehearsal loop.With sufficient rehearsal (elaborative rehearsal) information can be transferred to LTM

Question 14

Describe the last structure of the multi store model of memory

Answer 14

Long-term memory:
- If information is sufficiently rehearsed in STM, it is semantically coded into LTM
- This is a permanent store holding potentially infinite amounts of information
- The duration could potentially be a lifetime
- When information in the LTM is needed, it is retrieved by STM and recalled
- Sometimes retrieval failure may occur where we cannot access information from LTM, and we need retrieval cues to help us access it

Question 15

Look at Goodnotes for diagram of multi store model

Answer 15

:)

Question 16

What is some neuro biological evidence that can be used to evaluate the multi store model of memory?

Answer 16

• One strength of the multi store model of memory is that Scoville (1957) tried to treat the epilepsy of a patient he referred to as HM by removing several brain areas, including the hippocampus. This cause the patient to be unable to code new long-term memories, although short-term memory was unaffected. This supports the idea of separate and distinct STM and LTM.
• Another strength of this model, is that Shallice and Warrington (1970), reported a case study of KF, who, as a result of a motorbike accident had reduced STM capacity of 1-2 digits, yet LTM was normal. The supports the idea of separate STM and LTM. But, K F. Had poor STM for verbal, but not visual tasks suggesting there is more than one type of STM.. this contradict MSM of memory. Also, according to Multi-store long-term memories are treated by the STM so if STM is damaged, it should be difficult to retrieve LTM, but it wasn’t for KF

Question 17

What laboratory experiment can help to evaluate the multi store model of memory?

Answer 17

• One strength of this model is that Murdock (1962) presented participants with a free record experiment (they had to record a long list of words in any order). Words at the middle were not remembered as well as those at the beginning and end. This is the serial position affect. Words at the beginning a record, because they have been constantly rehearsed and transferred to LTM (primacy effect) words at the end of the list or recalled, because they are still in STM (recency effect), the supports the idea of separate and distinct, STM and LTM

Question 18

What are some general evaluation points to help evaluate the multi store model of memory?

Answer 18

• One weakness of this model is that it is oversimplified in, assuming there is only one type of STM and one type of LTM. Some research shows that there are several types of STM such as one for verbal information (phonological loop) and another for non-verbal information (visuospatial sketchpad). Research also suggests different types of LTM like episodic memory for life, events, semantic memory for knowledge and facts and procedural memory for motor skills.
• Another weakness, is that Baddeley and Hitch (1974) claimed that the MSM could not explain ability to multitask, and if there’s only one type of STM, then multitasking would not be possible however, people multitask all the time

Question 19

Briefly describe the working memory model and state, its four components

Answer 19

• Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the idea promoted by the MSM of memory that people only have one type of short-term memory, and they argued that STM is far more complex than being a temporary source information
• The working memory model suggests that the STM is an active store of information, and LTM is a passive store, which holds previously learned material to be used by the STM
• It’s four components are: the central executive, the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer

Question 20

Describe the central executive

Answer 20

• drives the whole working memory system and allocate data to other components (slave systems)
• Deals with decision-making, reasoning, problem-solving
• Individuals have limited attentional capacity. Automated tasks make fewer attentional demands on the central executive and leave us free to perform other tasks
• Someone who has been driving for a long time, fines driving, becomes automated, and does not make attentional demands, so they can then listen to the radio or talk much more easily than learners

Question 21

Describe the phonological loop

Answer 21

This is a component of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It has two subcomponents:
- Phonological store: this is sometimes referred to as the inner ear, and it’s linked to speech perception and holds information in speech, based form for 1-2 seconds
- Articulatory loop: sometimes referred to as the inner voice. Linked to speech production and is used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store. It allows for maintenance rehearsal.

Question 22

Describe the Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 22

This stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form and is used for navigation. It is sometimes referred to as the inner eye and has two subcomponents:
- Visual cache: stores visual material about form and colour
- Inner scribe: handles spatial relationships

Question 23

Describe the episodic buffer
Why was it added?

Answer 23

• Baddeley (2000) added this component, because the model didn’t have a general storage component, and the slave systems only deal with processing and temporary storage of specific types of information. And the central executive has no storage capacity.
• This is a limited capacity store integrating information from the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad as well as from LTM

Question 24

Look at Goodnotes for working memory model

Answer 24

:)

Question 25

Evaluate the working memory model using neurobiological evidence

Answer 25

• One strength of WMM is that Shallice and Warrington (1970), reported a case study of KF who got into a motorbike accident, and had poor, short-term memory for words that were presented verbally, but not for us so presented visually, suggesting that there is more than one type of STM as a working memory model suggests. In particular, it shows that we have a type of STM for verbal tasks (phonological loop) and another for visual (Visuo-spatial sketchpad)

Question 26

Evaluate the working memory model using laboratory experiments

Answer 26

• One advantage is that Baddeley and Hitch(1974) gave participants a dual task. They had to complete a reasoning task which uses the central executive at the same time is a reading aloud task, which uses the phonological loop. Participants did both tasks simultaneously, very well supporting the idea of separate components in STM.
• Baddeley et al (1975), give participants brief visual presentations of lists of words. One list had a very long words and one list had a very short words. When participants were asked to recall the words immediately in the correct order, it was found that participants recalled more from the short list than the long list. Baddeley (1975) called this the word length affect and concluded that it supports the phonological loop because it can hold as many items which can be said in 1.5–2 seconds, rather than seven (+/- 2)items as the MSM argues.

Question 27

Evaluate the working memory model using general evaluation points

Answer 27

• One strength is that the WMM has practical applications and it has helped improve understanding of help. People learn to read there for helping psychologists assist those with dyslexia who can struggle with reading.
• When weakness of this model is that psychologists think the idea of a central executive is vague and untestable. Damasio (1985), presented the case of EVR, who had a cerebral tumour removed and had good reasoning skills, which suggested that his central executive was intact but could not make decisions which suggests that his central executive was damaged. Therefore this case study suggests that the central executive is more complicated than the model claims.

Question 28

Define:
- capacity
- duration

Answer 28

Capacity = The amount of information that can be held in memory before new incoming information displaces it. This means the information is ‘pushed out’.
Duration = The amount of time information can be held in a memory store before it is lost due to decay. This means the information ‘fades away’.