Approaches L5-8

Question 1

What is a subsection of the cognitive approach?

Answer 1

Cognitive neuroscience

Question 2

Describe cognitive neuroscience

Answer 2

• Cognitive and biological processes can be integrated, leading to a discipline known as cognitive neuroscience.
• This is the scientific study of the neurological structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry which are responsible for our thinking processes.

Question 3

Describe the practical applications of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 3

• Brain imaging techniques such as Position Emission Tomography (PET) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) have been used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain, for instance episodic memories are in the hippocampus, semantic memories are in the temporal lobe, and procedural memories are in the cerebellum.

This has led to more effective treatments for memory disorders.

Question 4

What are the strengths of the cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 4

• it is very dominant today in Psychology. The Cognitive approach can be applied to practical and theoretical contexts and has helped develop cognitive neuroscience. For example Cognitive Psychology has helped contribute to the development of artificial intelligence and, “thinking” machines such as robots.
• it has been founded on the idea of, “soft determinism.” This means that humans recognise that their cognitive thinking system operates within the limits of what they know and humans are free to think before they respond to stimuli. The cognitive approach is more interactionist than other approaches and is not as deterministic as the behavioural approach
• its focus on theoretical computer models emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the IV and DV.

Question 5

What are the criticisms/weaknesses of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 5

• The cognitive approach uses computer models. Phrases like storage and retrieval are taken directly from computing. However, there is an important difference between the sort of information processing that takes place within a computer programme and the processing that takes place in the human mind. Computers do not make mistakes/ ignore available information/ forget. Humans do all of these things.
• The approach can be seen as mechanical or reductionist in regarding human thinking as processing like the computer. It doesn’t consider the irrationality often seen in emotional behaviours.

Question 6

Outline the study related to cognitive neuroscience

Answer 6

• Maguire wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was predetermined, or whether the brain is susceptible to plastic changes in response to environmental stimulation (driving a taxi)
• Taxi drivers undergo extensive training and make an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation.
• The aim was to examine whether structural changes could be detected (using MRI scans) in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.
• 32 healthy males (avg age 44) were investigated and split into 2 groups
• experimental: 16 licensed male London taxi drivers (drove for at least 18 months) and control: were 16 males (had never driven taxis).

Question 7

Describe the findings of the study related to cognitive neuroscience

Answer 7

• The right posterior hippocampus in the brain of the taxi drivers’ was larger
  than the control group; this was related to the length of time the taxi driver had been in the job.
• The longer they had been a taxi driver, the larger the right posterior hippocampus. This part of the brain is responsible for storing visual representations of the environment and this links to the fact that taxi drivers have to navigate around the streets of London.
• This demand in knowledge resulted in a physical change in the brain which was identified by the MRI scan. A positive correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus.

Question 8

Briefly evaluate the study related to cognitive neuroscience

Answer 8

• An advantage of the study by Maguire is that is supports the key aspects of cognitive neuroscience which combines both cognitive and biological factors to help explain internal thought processes. The study uses MRI brain scanning to investigate the hippocampus area of the brain. The study also emphasises how the brain is “like a muscle” and the more an area of the brain is used or exercised, the larger it becomes (+)
• only investigated males therefore lacks ecological validity. Results cannot be generalised to females. Individual differences is an important factor to consider when examining the brain and cognitive functions, and every brain is different.

3) There is research evidence to support the idea that the right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness. Previous rodent and monkey studies have found the (posterior) hippocampus to be involved in spatial navigation. Such an involvement may also be true for the posterior part of the hippocampus in birds and rats. Therefore it seems that the right posterior hippocampus is responsible for spatial awareness in humans and animals, and the functionality of the brain is similar across many species (+)

Question 9

define genetics

Answer 9

The genetic makeup of an organism, the genes they carry

Question 10

define genotype
define phenotype
hence, what are the main differences?

Question 11

explain the biological approach
*not define

Answer 11

• Individuals inherit characteristics which are carried on genes (on chromosomes).
• Psychologists research genetics by studying twins (monozygotic identical twins, or dizygotic non identical twins).
• Twin studies allow psychologists to look at concordance rates between twins
• For instance from using gene mapping, it has been found that chromosome 13 carries the gene for schizophrenia, and chromosome 11 carries the gene for bipolar depression

Question 12

what is a concordance rate?

Answer 12

• usually in twin studies psychologists to look at concordance rates between twins
• these are the chances of both twins inheriting a certain trait (e.g. depression or intelligence).

Question 13

what are the strengths of genetics

as a part of the biological approach

Answer 13

• when examining genes and the role they have on behaviour, gene mapping can help psychologists locate specific genes on chromosomes which could help to identify a disorder of genetic vunerability. These precise methods of investigation are highly scientific and objective.
• genetic research often involves using twin/ adoption studies. This is useful when examining MZ twins who are identical as it can help psychologists examine concordance rates in relation to behaviour. The research by Gottesman and Shields would support the idea that certain illnesses such as schizophrenia are transmitted genetically
• Genetics can help psychologists screen people to see if they carry genes for certain illnesses. This would involve gene mapping and it can help psychologists identify individuals who might be at risk from certain illnesses or diseases such as depression or some forms of cancer. This means that people might get psychological help before they become unwell (preventative)

Question 14

what are the weaknesses of genetics

as a part of the biological approach

Answer 14

• when examining the role of genetics, it is reductionist. It takes a complex human behaviour such as IQ and reduces it down to small components alone such as genes. This idea seems inaccurate, as IQ is not solely dependent on genes; other factors need to be considered such as the environment
• Other models and approaches in Psychology are being ignored. E.g. the cognitive and behavioural approaches would also need to be considered when examining behaviour. An example is that someone who has depression might carry the gene for depression, but they might also have faulty and negative cognitions which have been ignored. (-)

Question 15

which study could be linked to the role of genes (as a part of the biological approach)?

Answer 15

Gottesman and Shields

Question 16

describe the study by Gottesman and Shields

Answer 16

• investigated 224 sets of twins from 1948-1993 who appeared on the Maudsley twin register
• 106 sets of twins were MZ and 118 were DZ.
• 120 males and 104 females in total took part in the study.
• average age of the participants’ was 46, and they came from a range of different ethnic backgrounds.
• the study was conducted in a London hospital
• longitudinal study following the participants’ over 25 years.
• The study relied on the fact that one twin already had the illness of schizophrenia, and concordance rates were investigated; which examined the likelihood or the chances of the healthy twin becoming schizophrenic over time. The methods that Gottesman and Shields used to diagnose schizophrenia included the following:
• In depth interviews
• Doctors case notes
• The DSM

Question 17

what were the results of the study by Gottesman and Shields

Answer 17

• 48% of MZ twins were both concordant for schizophrenia by the end of the study
• 17% of DZ twins were both concordant for schizophrenia by the end of the study

Question 18

what were the strengths of the study by Gottesman and Shields?

Answer 18

• It was longitudinal. This means that the schizophrenic patients could be tracked over long periods of time in order to monitor the development of the illness schizophrenia. This means that longitudinal studies are very valuable when investigating whether schizophrenia is caused by genetics
• The research supports the biological (genetics) approach as the results show 48% concordance rates for schizophrenia in MZ twins and 17% concordance in DZ twins. Therefore the results support the biological argument that schizophrenia can be transmitted by genetics

Question 19

what were the weaknesses of the study by Gottesman and Shields

Answer 19

• The research ignores the behavioural approach when examining the causes of schizophrenia. Identical twins often copy and model each other’s behaviour, so it could be that the healthy twin has modelled or copied schizophrenic behaviour rather than getting the illness via genetics. Therefore we must investigate fully whether the healthy twin gained schizophrenia via genetics or from observing and copying behaviour
• The research could be criticised because it relied on interviews with patients. Schizophrenia patients often have difficulty with their speech and communication and therefore some patients might have found it difficult to communicate their symptoms effectively to the psychologists/psychiatrists. Therefore this issue could have had a negative effect on the diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia

Question 20

within the biological approach what variables impact behavour?

Answer 20

• genes
• evolution
• neurochemistry

Question 21

who proposed the theory of evolution?

Answer 21

• Charles Darwin (1851)

Question 22

explain the theory of evolution

Answer 22

• Darwin focused on natural selection and adaptiveness to the environment over time
• The genetic makeup of an individual can undergo a random change/mutation due to a factor in the environment, and this could lead to a characteristic change occurring in future generations of offspring
• The change might mean that survival and chances of reproduction are greater, and therefore this mutated gene will be passed on and is adaptive
• Physical characteristics of a species may vary, and it might partly be due to genetics and inherited characteristics, but we must also acknowledge the environment
• Adaptiveness is important, because individuals often compete with each other for resources, and those who survive will reproduce (survival of the fittest)

Question 23

describe a study associated with the theory of evolution

Answer 23

• Lea (2005) has found that aggression might be genetic.
• The warrior gene (MAOA gene - Monoamine Oxidase A) is found within the genotype of 33% of males.
• Could this mean that the most aggressive males have more chance of survival and passing on their genes? The research is ongoing into this topic.

Question 24

what are the strengths of the evolutionary approach?

Answer 24

• Evolutionary ideas can be supported by the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate. The evolutionary approach states that our genetic makeup and interactions with the environment have a direct effect on our behaviour, for instance (Lamarck) genetic mutations of genes in giraffes have led to them having very long necks so that they can get enough food in the environment and reach the top leaves from the tree.
• The evolutionary approach is heavily supported by the work from Charles Darwin and survival of the fittest. This can help explain how certain traits become adaptive within a species such as males being very tall, or giraffes having long necks
• Evolutionary ideas have their advantages because it means that species will compete with each other in order to seek the best mate to reproduce with. This helps to maximize the chances of healthy offspring being produced who will be healthy and will be able to pass on their genes to the next generation. This helps human/animal species to evolve and adapt

Question 25

what are the weaknesses of the evolutionary approach?

Answer 25

• A problem of the idea of evolution is that is does not clearly explain some behaviours and how/why they might be adaptive. E.g. OCD has been found to be genetic, but it is not clear how OCD can be adaptive and can help aid survival of the fittest. This is not very clear and is not well explained.
• The idea of evolution fails to take into account behavioural and cognitive explanations for behaviour. The idea of every species wishing to reproduce and aid survival seems to take away the idea of free will and cognitions, whereby not all members of a species have this drive or will make such decisions.

Question 26

what is some research surrounding the evolutionary approach

Answer 26

sexual selection by Buss (1989)

Question 27

describe the study on sexual selection by Buss (1989)

including findings

Answer 27

• Investigated what males and females looked for in a long term partner
• 10,000 participants used across 37 cultures
• They had to rate 18 characteristics (physical attraction, finances etc.) using a 4 point rating scale, where 0 = irrelevant, and 3 = indispensable (highly rated).
• The findings showed that females desired males with good financial prospects, resources and ambition
• Males desired females who had reproductive value (were fertile). All males universally wanted females who were youthful/younger than them

Question 28

evaluate the research by Buss (1989)

Answer 28

• WEAKNESS: Research by Buller (2005) has criticised Buss’s research findings and the evolutionary explanation. Buller has questioned the idea that females universally prefer high status males with resources. Many females in today’s contemporary society are independent, have their own resources, and therefore do not rely on a mate to financially provide for them.
• STRENGTH: Buss (1989) has cross cultural validity when examining evolutionary explanations of behaviour. 37 cultures were assessed and it seems that from an evolutionary perspective females want to be “protected” and “cared for” by their male partner in terms of resources. This is supported by the fact that females might believe that a man with resources can look after her and their future offspring, this helps aid stability for the family unit
• WEAKNESS: it does not take into account social and cultural factors that might affect partner choice. E.g. if males desire younger fertile women, they might feel pressure from their culture and peers to choose a suitable mate that fits in with the “ideal” standard proposed by society. Therefore the evolutionary approach would ignore other factors that might influence mate choice according to society’s norms, values and ideals. Another example = female body image. Western cultures value a slim or hourglass female body shape whereas many eastern cultures prefer larger and curvy female body shapes

Question 29

Describe the cognitive approach

Answer 29

• Cognitive psychologists often investigate internal mental processes by using the methods of laboratory and field experiments.
• They use inferences about cognitive internal processes. The cognitive model might make assumptions about mental processes beyond immediate research evidence (it is difficult to gather data and evidence about inferences). This is because direct observation of internal cognitive processes is not possible; results must be inferred from behaviour/data
• Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that are both conscious and unconscious (schemas)
• This approach uses theoretical and computer models to understand cognitive processes

Question 30

Give an example of a model used by the cognitive approach

Answer 30

An example of a theoretical model would be the working memory model, which is a diagrammatic representation of short-term memory, made up of the following cognitive components, through which information flows: Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer.

Question 31

Describe schemas as a part of the cognitive approach

Answer 31

• Schemas are packets of information/ideas/cognitive frameworks that are developed through experience and expectations about how we should behave.
• They can help us organise and interpret vast amounts of information in the mind and can act as a “shortcut whereby our mind can fill in the gaps about information that might be missed e.g. we have a schema about what to expect when going to a restaurant.
• Schemas can cause us to exclude anything that does not conform/is inconsistent to our ideas about the world.

Question 32

What are the two kinds of schema

Answer 32

Role schema: A schema about behaviour that is expected from someone in a particular role, e.g. a librarian

Event schema: A schema about what to expect from an event, e.g. a party

Question 33

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 33

• It has many applications in different areas of Psychology. For example social cognitions can help psychologists understand how to form impressions of other people and how we might form cognitive errors and biases. Cognitive Psychology might also explain the development of faulty negative thinking which can aid our understanding of abnormal psychology e.g. phobias
• It emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the independent and dependent variables. This also makes the research more objective and scientific.
• The cognitive approach has had a big influence on the development of cognitive neuroscience in psychology as well as therapies. Cognitive neuroscience aims to scientifically study the influence of the brain structure on mental processes, and this has only been possible due to the work that has been developed through the cognitive approach/model For instance cognitive therapy aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help cure depression. The cognitive approach has also helped to devise cognitive behavioural therapy, so the approach is very useful and beneficial for therapies and treatments

Question 34

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

Answer 34

• focuses heavily on internal mental processes which are often ignored by other models in Psychology. For instance the biological approach would focus on genetics, biochemistry and neuroanatomy as factors that could cause behaviour to occur. The cognitive model would focus solely on thoughts and internal mental processes, and the biological model would ignore these factors
• The cognitive approach can be criticised it does not give a full picture about what is really going on inside the working mind/brain. Psychologists and scientists still need to make inferences about cognitive processing which might be based on limited information available from research/experiments. It is questionable whether psychologists can really understand and explain thinking by using inference alone. (-)
• The cognitive approach ignores the idea of Soft determinism (behaviour is constrained by the environment or biology). The cognitive approach views behaviour as being determined by internal cognitive factors but would ignore biology or the environment. However, biology might have a big impact upon cognitive thinking, for example there is a great deal of evidence that depression and negative thinking might be genetic (therefore Biology does affect cognition to an extent)

Question 35

What research can be used to supplement the cognitive approach?

Answer 35

Bartlett (1932) “The War of the Ghosts”

Question 36

Describe the method and findings of

Bartlett (1932) “The War of the Ghosts”

Answer 36

Method:
- English participants read a Native American folk tale, “The war of the Ghosts” which came from a very different culture and had an unfamiliar and unusual story structure compared to an English story
- after different lengths of time they had to recall the story as accurately as possible (to test their schemas and recall)

Findings:
- all participants changed the story to fit their own schema. They reconstructed the story in order to recall it better.
- The details of the story became more “English” and contained elements of the English culture. for example, “canoes” were changed to “cars” and “bows” and arrows changed to “guns”
- Details of “ghosts” were left out in the recall
- The order of the story was changed to be more “logical”
• As more time passed between reading and recalling, participants seemed to remember less information.

• conclusion: people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information, and this is dependent upon culture to an extent. (Schemas are important when studying internal mental processes.)

Question 37

Evaluate Bartlett (1932) “The War of the Ghosts”

Answer 37

• STRENGTH: The study was conducted in a laboratory setting. This is because the setting and the IV can be highly controlled in order to accurately measure schemas and internal cognitive processes. The results are likely to be highly reliable if the study was to be repeated again
• STRENGTH: The study has the strength of confirming how important schema theory is when investigating internal mental cognitive processes. It seems that people will recall information in a way that fits in with their schema. This could have implications when asking people to recall information for eye witness testimony and court proceedings. People might distort their memories according to their schemas, but now psychologists are aware of this issue, they can ensure this does not happen
• CRITICISM: The study can be criticised because the participants might have affected by demand characteristics. They might have guessed the aim of the study and might have altered their responses accordingly which might mean that the study and the results are not very valid. This might lead psychologist to question the results in relation to schemas and internal cognitive processes
• CRITICISM: a biased sample that was used. The study only used English participants which cannot be generalised to other samples from around the world. Therefore the results are quite narrow and biased and do not give a holistic view of different cultures and how their schemas and internal cognitive processes might operate

Question 38

Describe the biological structures

Answer 38

Neurons and the nervous system:
• The CNS (central nervous system) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and controls breathing, and
heart rate
• The PNS (peripheral nervous system) sends and receives messages from the CNS to other parts of the
body e.g. limbs using individual cells called neurons
• Neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals
b) The brain:
• The brain is made up of the left and right hemisphere, and in total has 4 lobes

Question 39

State and describe the four lobes of the brain

Answer 39

• Parietal lobe: all factory information plus the reaction to that
• occipital lobe: vision
  – Temporal lobe: audio/language/memory
• Frontal low: executive function and emotion

Question 40

What are the strengths of biological structures?

Answer 40

• The biological model has its strengths in that the study of the brain relies on the use of scans, such as PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and post mortem studies which adds to scientific evidence than can help support the biological approach. It can be viewed as one of the most scientific models/approaches
• An advantage of looking at brain structures is they can be scientifically and objectively investigated in order to test how they might affect behaviour. For instance the brain can be investigated using FMRI and PET scanning which gives psychologists access to investigating and understanding how the brain functions

Question 41

What are the weaknesses of biological structures?

Answer 41

• The biological model can be criticised because it is more applicable at explaining the causes of some behaviours, but not others. For instance infection or neuroanatomy of the brain can cause schizophrenia, but there are some behaviours that cannot be well explained by these ideas. For instance the development of phobias is usually learnt
• Cause and effect is a disadvantage when looking at biological structures and their effect on behaviour. For instance can psychologists be sure that a brain malfunction is causing a behaviour to occur, e.g. a smaller hypothalamus causing schizophrenia?
• A problem of studying the brain is that psychologists still do not know 100% about the brain and its functions. Therefore there could be problems of trying to identify which part of the brain is responsible for certain behaviours and more investigation might be needed.

Question 42

Describe neural correlates

Answer 42

Schizophrenia might develop due to structural and functional brain abnormalities.
• Post mortems were used to investigate the structure of the brain in patients who had schizophrenia, but we now use fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Question 43

What study can be used to support neural correlates

Answer 43

Swayze

Question 44

Describe Swayzes study on neural correlates

Answer 44

Swayze reviewed 50 studies of schizophrenic patients and examined their brain imaging using MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging).

From these brain images, the structure of the brain could be examined and it was found that schizophrenic patients’ have structural abnormalities in their brain including:
• A decrease in brain weight
• Enlarged ventricles (that are filled with water)
• A smaller hypothalamus
• Less grey matter (this is where the intelligence is held and it seems to have deteriorated)
• Structural abnormalities in the pre frontal cortex (where the personality is held)

Question 45

Evaluate swayze’s study

Answer 45

Weak: Andreason (1982) found that the extent to which the ventricles in the brain are enlarged in schizophrenic patients is not significant; and therefore there is actually very little difference between the neural correlates of schizophrenic patients’ and normal people.

Weak: Cause and effect needs to be established. Is it the fact that abnormal neural correlates actually causes schizophrenia to occur, or does schizophrenia occur first (due to other factors) and then cause the brain structure/neural correlates to alter?

Strength: There is a strong amount of supporting psychological evidence to state that schizophrenia is caused by neural correlates changing in the brain that occur during pre-natal development in the womb. However, this does not explain why schizophrenia occurs in early adulthood (and not straight away during infancy). (+)/ (-)

Weak: Davison and Neale (2001) have found contradictory evidence to suggest that enlarged brain ventricles are not only found in schizophrenia patients, but that sufferers of mania also have enlarged ventricles. Therefore enlarged ventricles alone cannot cause schizophrenia, but it could be a vulnerability factor that increases the risk of getting the illness. (-)

Question 46

Describe Neurochemistry/neurotransmitters and its effect on behaviour

Answer 46

This looks at the biochemistry of the central nervous system which involves hormones and neurotransmitters

• In the brain the transmission of neurotransmitters occurs via cerebral fluid, for instance high levels of dopamine cause schizophrenia

• The endocrine system is responsible for producing hormones in the body, for instance high levels of testosterone might increase aggression levels. The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that release hormones into the body which will affect behaviour

Question 47

What are the strengths of neurochemistry

Answer 47

Neurotransmitters can be measured objectively and scientifically which is a strength. For instance dopamine can be measured by inserting a needle in the spine and extracting spinal plasma fluid. This means we can obtain objective and scientific measurements (+)

A strength of neurotransmitters is that if we know that a lack/excess of a particular neurotransmitter has an effect on behaviour e.g. low levels of serotonin cause depression, then we can look for relevant treatments that can help solve the issue. For instance giving depressed people SSRI drugs that increase serotonin (+)

Question 48

What are the weaknesses of neurochemistry

Answer 48

A negative point of neurochemistry is that cause and effect needs to be established. Can we be sure that high/low levels of neurotransmitters actually cause a change in behaviour, e.g. low levels of serotonin cause depression?

Neurotransmitters can be viewed as reductionist which can be a disadvantage. To say that complex human behaviour can be affected by neurotransmitters alone is too simplistic and inaccurate, for instance is depression really just caused by low serotonin levels? (-)

The idea that neurotransmitters can have an effect on behaviour can be criticised by the cognitive approach. The cognitive approach would state that behaviour is caused by thought patterns and thinking rather than neurochemistry or chemicals, for instance depression could be caused by negative thinking according to the cognitive approach rather than by low levels of serotonin (biological approach) (-)

Question 49

Which study can be used to support neurochemistry

Answer 49

The Dopamine Hypothesis by Davis and Neale

Question 50

Describe The Dopamine Hypothesis by Davis and Neale

Answer 50

Schizophrenic patients’ tend to have high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in their brain but their dopamine metabolism seems to be abnormal,

When drugs such as phenothiazines are given to patients’ that block dopamine in the brain; the positive symptoms of schizophrenia seem to reduce (hallucinations and delusions)

A drug called L-Dopa increases dopamine levels in the brain. This drug can induce symptoms of schizophrenia, and it has been tested on healthy non psychotic people. Drugs such as LSD and amphetamines (dopamine agonist) also increase dopamine levels in the brain and can induce schizophrenic symptoms.

Question 51

What are the strengths of The Dopamine Hypothesis by Davis and Neale

Answer 51

There is a great deal of research to support the hypothesis that schizophrenic patients have a high level of dopamine in their brain. For instance research by Davidson found that when schizophrenic patients were given the drug L-Dopa their schizophrenic symptoms got worse and intensified. (+)

There is a great deal of scientific evidence and support for the dopamine hypothesis as a cause of schizophrenia. Most of the research has used evidence that have come from brain scans (PET and fMRI) which is highly valid and reliable information. This gives scientific and objective data (+)

Question 52

What are the weaknesses of The Dopamine Hypothesis by Davis and Neale

Answer 52

Cause and effect is not clear. Could it be that an increase in dopamine causes schizophrenia to develop; or could it be that the illness develops first (due to another cause) and then this causes dopamine levels to increase?

Dopamine has also been associated with mania (bipolar depression), and this illness is not alleviated by phenothiazine drugs. Therefore is seems that dopamine has a complex role in the brain and might be associated with many psychological illnesses and not schizophrenia alone.

The dopamine hypothesis could be viewed as being reductionist. It looks at the complicated phenomenon of the causes of schizophrenia and reduces it down to the component of dopamine alone.

Question 53

Define neurotransmitter

Answer 53

chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another, enabling communication within the brain and nervous system. Neurotransmitters play a key role in regulating mood, behavior, cognition, and bodily functions by influencing the activity of neurons. Examples include serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine