Approaches L9-11

Question 1

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 1

• The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind.
• Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour.
• Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are.

Question 2

Which psychologist do we associate with the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 2

Sigmund Freud

Question 3

Psychodynamic approach:
What did Freud believe about the mind?

Answer 3

Freud believed that there are 3 levels to the mind:
- Conscious mind: thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of.
- preconscious mind: thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they
wanted to.
- The largest part of the mind is inaccessible. He referred to this as the unconscious mind.

Question 4

Describe Freudian slips

Answer 4

Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms.

Question 5

Psychodynamic approach: Further explain the unconscious part of the mind

Answer 5

• The unconscious is the driving/motivating force behind our behaviour/personality
• The unconscious protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict.
• Traumatic (repressed) memories drive our behaviour
• The underlying unconscious drive is sexual
• If a conflict is experienced during the development through the psychosexual stages, e.g. oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital, a fixation (that resides in their unconscious mind) can affect an adult’s personality

Question 6

How can the unconscious mind be studied?

Answer 6

The mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts, feelings and memories in the mind from reaching the conscious mind because they would cause the person anxiety.

During psychoanalysis or hypnosis the psychoanalyst tries to access the unconscious mind of their patients using free association and dream interpretation.

Question 7

Describe free association

Answer 7

Free association is the practice of allowing the patient to discuss thoughts, dreams, memories, or words, regardless of coherency. The patient is allowed to talk without pause in a stream of words.

Freud believed this non-linear way of thinking would lead to the unconscious mind.

Question 8

Psychodynamic approach:
What is the structure of the personality?

Answer 8

Personality has a tripartite structure: the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. Experience and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves.

Question 9

Describe the id

Answer 9

• The id is formed between birth and 18 months of age.
• It is in the unconscious mind. The id focuses on the self (selfish), and is irrational and emotional.
• It deals with feelings and needs, and seeks pleasure.
• It operates on the pleasure principle.

Question 10

Psychodynamic approach:
Describe the ego

Answer 10

• The ego is formed from 18 months to 3 years of age.
• It is in the conscious mind.
• It is rational and obtains a balance between the id and the superego.
• It operates on the reality principle.

Question 11

Psychodynamic approach:
Describe the superego

Answer 11

• The superego is formed between 3 and 6 years of age.
• It is in the unconscious mind.
• The superego acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental and societal values.
• It operates on the morality principle.

Question 12

Psychodynamic approach:
According to Freud what are the main defence mechanisms?

Answer 12

Repression
Denial
Displacement

Question 13

What is a defence mechanism?

Answer 13

Behaviours which stop an individual from becoming consciously aware of any unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or memories that they may be experiencing.

Question 14

Describe repression

Answer 14

This is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. These repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour.

For example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.

Question 15

Describe denial

Answer 15

This is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation. For example, an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.

Question 16

Describe displacement

Answer 16

This occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g. anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object. For example, a student who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker or shout at their friends

Question 17

Describe the psychosexual stages

Answer 17

Freud believed personality developed through a sequence of 5 stages referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido).

At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body. Freud believed that parents played an important role in a child’s progression through the psychosexual stages.

Question 18

Describe the oral psychosexual stage

Answer 18

AGE: 0-1 years

WHAT: Focus of pleasure is the mouth and the control of sucking, tasting and biting.

RESOLUTION= Trusting and able to give/receive affection.

UNRESOLVED= Oral fixation – smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical.

Question 19

Describe the anal psychosexual stage

Answer 19

AGE: 1-3 years

WHAT: Focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.

RESOLVED= Can deal with authority figures.

UNRESOLVED=
Anal retentive personality – perfectionist and obsessive.
Anal expulsive personality – thoughtless and messy.

Question 20

Describe the phallic psychosexual stage

Answer 20

AGE: 3-5 years

WHAT: Focus of pleasure is the genital area. Child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex.

RESOLVED= Adopts the behaviours/traits of the same sex.

UNRESOLVED= Narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual.

Question 21

Describe the latent psychosexual stage

Answer 21

AGE: 6-12 years

WHAT: Focus is on the mastery of the world and social relationships. Earlier conflicts are repressed/resolved and early years are forgotten

Question 22

Describe the genital psychosexual stage

Answer 22

AGE: 12+ years

WHAT: Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty.

RESOLUTION= Individual is a well-adjusted adult.

UNRESOLVED= Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

Question 23

Describe fixation

Answer 23

If the child as allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation could occur in which the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.

Question 24

Describe the Oedipus complex

Answer 24

During the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a hatred for their rival in love – their father.

Fearing that their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father. In doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (his superego).

Question 25

Describe the electra complex

Answer 25

During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father. They also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this.

Over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby. In turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego).

Question 26

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 26

• it led to the development of psychoanalysis – a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. This laid the foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
• The case study of Little Hans supports the Oedipus complex proposed by Sigmund Freud. However, the concept could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences (e.g. through dream analysis) where subjective interpretation is open to investigator bias.
• the use of evidence to support the effectiveness of psychotherapy. E.g. De Maat et al examined the effectiveness of long-term psychoanalytic psychotherapy for patients with a range of DSM diagnoses. There was supporting evidence for improvements in psychological symptoms due to the use of psychotherapy
• Caspi’s would support Freud’s work. Caspi found that the role of childhood personality has an impact later on in life. Children with an inhibited personality at age 3 tended to be depressed by age 21. Children who were impulsive/lacked control at age 3, tended to develop anti-social personality disorder by age 21.

Question 27

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 27

• The key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability because they are unconscious processes and therefore difficult to test. They cannot be seen, measured or observed and are not very scientific or objective
• The psychodynamic model can be criticised. Freud tends to focus on childhood traumas and problems that a patient might have had, and this is seen as the cause of abnormality. Freud would ignore any current problems that the patient is having, and would solely focus on childhood alone.

Question 28

What are the key assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 28

• Psychology should study the whole person as everyone is unique.
• People have free will to make their own decisions in life.
• The scientific method is too objective because the methods employed fail to acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual.

Question 29

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 29

• A person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs are at the top.
• People are motivated to achieve progression through the levels, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need.
• Maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore.

Question 30

What is self-actualisation

Answer 30

when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves. Self-actualisation concerns psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life and is the final stage in Maslow’shierarchy of needs

Maslow found that most of those who attained self-actualisation shared certain characteristics such as being creative, accepting of other people and had an accurate perception of the world around them.

Maslow believed that such individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences (moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions)

Question 31

State each level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (start at top)

Answer 31

self-fulfilment needs:
5. Self actualisation : achieving one’s full potential inclusive of creative pursuits

Psychological needs:
4. Esteem needs: prestige and feelings of accomplishment
3. Belongingness and love needs: intimate relationships and friends

Basic needs:
2. Safety needs: security and safety
1. Physiological needs: food, water, warmth, and rest

Question 32

Which psychologist do we associate with the humanist approach?

Answer 32

Rogers

Question 33

What does Rodgers claim are the two basic needs of people?

Answer 33

positive regard from other people and feelings of self-worth

• Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood as a result of the child’s interactions with parents. Further interactions with significant others in adulthood (friends, spouses etc.) also have an influence.

• The positive regard given by other people may be unconditional (unconditional positive regard) when a person is accepted for who they are, or conditional (conditional positive regard).

Question 34

How is unconditional positive regard related to self worth?

Answer 34

When people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth. These are conditions which they believe have to be met if they are to be accepted by others. An individual will only experience a sense of self-acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance.

Psychological issues are thought to arise as a result of conditions of worth, which are constraints an individual believes are put upon them by significant others that they deem necessary to gain positive regard.

Question 35

Describe congruence/incongruence

Answer 35

When there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to be) a state of congruence exists.

However, if there is a difference between the perceived self (self-concept) and ideal self, the person experiences a state of incongruence. This can lead to negative feelings of self-worth. The closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self-worth.

It is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist; most people experience some degree of incongruence. However, most people see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self.

Question 36

How does the humanist propose to treat psychological problems?

Answer 36

Rodgers (1959): claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people.

With counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways. Instead of acting in a directive way, humanistic psychologists, regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation.

Therapists provide unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance and understanding. They are therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth. This results in the client moving towards being more true to their self (i.e. able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than who someone else wants them to be).

Question 37

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach

Answer 37

• There is supporting research evidence about the role of conditions of worth by Harter et al. They found that teenagers that felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval, frequently end up not liking themselves, and were more likely to develop depression. Therefore conditions of worth are an important element for well-being and mental health (+)
• the focus on personal growth. Humanistic therapy focuses on self-actualization and personal development. It helps people uncover their authentic selves and realize their full potential. Through this process, people can gain clarity about their values, aspirations, and goals, leading to a more fulfilling and meaningful life.

Question 38

What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

Answer 38

A disadvantage of the humanist approach is that even though humanists believe in free will; science believes that all behaviour is caused by something (i.e. it has been determined). Determinism in science allows for general laws and predictability of behaviour, so there is limited application of the humanistic approach to behaviour (-)

It lacks scientific rigour; it proposes that we should study the whole person because each individual is unique. However science relies on reductionism i.e. reducing behaviour into its simplest components so that they can be studied objectively. (-)

It proposes concepts such as self-actualisation where definitions lack operationalisation. There is no objective measure of whether someone has self-actualised leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims.

5) A problem about the ideas of humanistic psychology, such as personal growth, would be much more readily associated with individualist cultures in the Western world (e.g. the United States). Collectivist cultures (e.g. in China) which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology. Therefore, it is possible that this approach is the product of the cultural context within which it was developed

Question 39

State whether each of the approaches tends towards free will or determinism

Answer 39

BIOLOGICAL: Biological determinism Behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors (e.g.genes, neurochemistry).

BEHAVIOURAL: Environmental determinism Behaviour is controlled by stimulus-response association.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Soft determinism Behaviour is influenced by environmental forces but humans have some free will.

COGNITIVE: Soft determinism: behaviour can be controlled by schemas etc. but individuals choose what information they attend to.

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Psychic determinism: behaviour is determined by unconscious instincts and drives.

HUMANIST: Free will: humans control their own behaviour.

Question 40

State whether each of the approaches tends towards nature or nurture

Answer 40

BIOLOGICAL: Nature: behaviour is the result of innate biological factors (e.g. genes).

BEHAVIOURIST: Nurture : humans are born as a ‘blank slate’ so all behaviour is learned.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Nurture: behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of models.

COGNITIVE: Nature & Nurture: behaviour is the product of information processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture).

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Nature and nurture: behaviour is the product of innate drives (nature) as well as childhood experiences (nurture).

HUMANIST: Nurture: behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation.

Question 41

State whether each of the approaches tends towards reductionism vs holistic

Answer 41

BIOLOGICAL: Biological reductionism: behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes.

BEHAVIOURIST: Environmental reductionism: Behaviour is broken down into stimulus- response association.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Holistic: takes into account both behavioural and cognitive factors in behaviour.

COGNITIVE: Holistic: But also accused of machine reductionism by comparing the human mind to a computer.

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Holistic: proposes that personality is the dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood experiences.

HUMANIST: Holistic: Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience.

Question 42

State whether each of the approaches tends towards idiographic or nomothetic

Answer 42

BIOLOGICAL: Nomothetic: Creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiology.

BEHAVIOURIST: Nomothetic: Creates universal laws as people learn through either association or consequence.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Nomothetic: attempts to establish general laws (e.g. vicarious reinforcement).

COGNITIVE: Nomothetic and idiographic: Attempts to establish general laws (e.g. through theoretical models) but also utilises case studies (e.g. HM and KF).

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Nomothetic & Idiographic: attempts to establish general laws (e.g. psychosexual stages) but also utilises case studies and considering unique childhood experiences.

HUMANIST: Idiographic: focuses on the subjective human experience.

Question 43

State whether each of the approaches is scientific

Answer 43

BIOLOGICAL: Scientific: Promotes scientific methods e.g. brain scanning. Uses animal research.

BEHAVIOURIST: Scientific: Utilises scientific methods (e.g. laboratory experiments). Uses animal research

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Mostly scientific: utilises scientific methods but also considers subjective mediational processes.

COGNITIVE: Mostly scientific: Utilises scientific methods (e.g. laboratory research) but also researches concepts not directly observable (e.g. cognitive errors).

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Not scientific: Examines concepts that cannot be empirically tested (e.g.repressed memories). Relies on subjective interpretation of case studies.

HUMANIST: Not scientific: Rejects scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence.

Question 44

State each of the approaches applications

Answer 44

BIOLOGICAL: Drug treatments (e.g. SSRIs for depression).

BEHAVIOURIST: Token economy, systematic desensitisation, and flooding.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Age rating on films and games.

COGNITIVE: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (e.g. Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy and Anger Management).

PSYCHODYNAMIC: Psychotherapy

HUMANIST: counselling