Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What is meant by the evolutionary explanation?
A
Focuses on the adaptive nature of behaviour. Modern behaviours are believed to have evolved because they were passed on by ancestors and became more widespread in the gene pool
2
Q
What is meant by sexual selection?
A
(Darwin) evolution is driven by competition for mates, and the development of characteristics ensure reproductive success
3
Q
What is meant by reproductive success?
A
Contingent on attracting a mate, overcoming competitors and survival of offspring
4
Q
What is meant by anisogamy?
A
The differences between male and female gametes
5
Q
Outline intersexual selection
A
Members of one sex evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates. Members of the opposite sex who possess these characteristics gain a mating advantage
6
Q
What is the driver behind intersexual selection?
A
Low quality/less desirable mates who are unhealthy and unattractive are more likely to produce offspring that also possess these attributes
7
Q
Which sex prefers intersexual selection?
A
Females
8
Q
Outline intrasexual selection?
A
Individuals of one sex (males usually) must outcompete other members of their sex in order to gain access to the opposite sex.
9
Q
What does anisogamy suggest about males?
A
Male’s optimum strategy is to mate with as many females as possible
10
Q
What characteristics do females prefer in males?
A
- Able to invest resources
- Physically fit, for protection purposes
- Show promise as a good parent
11
Q
What characteristics do males prefer in females?
A
Display good reproductive value
12
Q
What is meant by the matching hypothesis?
A
Claims that when people look for a partner, they tend to look for someone whose social desirability approximately equals their own
13
Q
How does the matching hypothesis work?
A
- Asses their own ‘value’
- By opting for partners of similar social desirability to themselves, they can maximise their chance of a successful outcome
- In modern society, matching has become more based on physical attractiveness alone rather than demographic qualities
14
Q
Outline the procedure for Walster et al (1966) computer dance study
A
- University students randomly selected
- Completed a questionnaire
- Told the data would be used to match them with their ideal partner, it was done randomly
- After the dance they completed a follow up questionnaire about how it went with their set partner
15
Q
Outline the findings for Walster et al (1966) computer dance study
A
- Did not support the matching hypothesis because results showed participants actually preferred people who were more attractive than them
- Other factors such as personality did not affect subsequent attempts to date them
16
Q
What are weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation?
A
- Reductionist: ignoring social and cultural influences (women’s independence - less reliant on man)
- Weaknesses in research: use of undergraduate students who look for resourceful men out of similarity
- Largely based on speculations - no reliable way to check these suggestions are valid
17
Q
What was the aim of Buss (1989) study of evolutionary explanations?
A
Buss explored anisogamy for partner preference
18
Q
What was the procedure for Buss (1989) evolutionary explanation research study?
A
- 10,000 people from 37 different cultures
- Asked to rate 18 characteristics (physical attractiveness, financial resources) on how important they would be in choosing a mate
- A 4 point scale was used, ranging from ‘3’ (indispensable) to ‘0’ (irrelevant)
19
Q
What was the findings for Buss (1989) evolutionary explanation research study?
A
Resources: Women desired mates who had financial resources
Physical Attractiveness: Men placed importance on physical attractiveness. Indicates fertility/reproductive value
Youth: Men universally wanted mate who were younger (also indicates fertility)
Other Important Characteristics: both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent (linked to parenting skill) and kind (interest in commitment)
20
Q
What can be said about gender differences and the matching hypothesis?
A
Buss (1989) demonstrated that men place great importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a mate. This is because it is a cute to a woman’s health and fertility. More recent research (Eastwick, 2011), suggests that it may also be just as important to women as it is to men
21
Q
How does the matching hypothesis work?
A
- Assess their own value
- Select candidates of their value
- By opting for partners of similar social desirability to themselves, they can maximise their chances of a successful outcome in reproduction
22
Q
What features are considered attractive?
A
Baby face in females, heavy brown and strong jawline in males
23
Q
What are some general weaknesses of the physical attractiveness/matching hypothesis?
A
- Individual differences; some people don’t place much importance on physical attractiveness
- Taylor et al; found that online daters met with potential partners who were actually more attractive - supporting computer dance study
24
Q
What are some general strengths of the physical attractiveness/matching hypothesis?
A
- High population validity; Wheeler and Kim (1997) found that regard for physical attractiveness was just as high in collectivist cultures as individualist
- Feingold (1998) meta analysis found significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners
- Other research support (mind map)
25
What is meant by self disclosure?
When a person reveals intimate personal information about themselves to another person. It involves confiding in someone about your thoughts, feelings and experiences.
26
What is the main research study for self disclosure?
Sprecher et al, (2013)
27
What was the procedure of Sprecher (2013) self disclosure study?
- 156 undergraduate students
- Each dyad of unacquainted individuals engaged in a self disclosure task over Skype
- In the reciprocal condition, dyad members immediately took turns asking questions and disclosing
- In the extended reciprocal condition, one person asked questions while the other disclosed, they then swapped roles
- After each interaction, they assessed liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of interaction
28
What were the findings of Sprecher (2013) self disclosure study?
More positive assessments for each interaction given by participants in the reciprocal condition
29
What were the conclusions of Sprecher (2013) self disclosure study?
Turn taking reciprocity more likely than extended reciprocity to lead to more positive interpersonal outcomes
30
What are the 2 main types of self disclosure?
1. Neutral = disclosing things such as personal preferences (music, film, etc.)
2. Intense = disclosing a deeper level of information such as disappointments and fears
31
What did Berg and Archer suggest about the norms of self disclosure?
People possess a norm of reciprocity with self disclosure; the more a person discloses, the more is expected in return
32
How does the Collins and Millar (1994) meta analysis support the self disclosure theory?
- Found people who disclose at an intimate level were more liked than those who disclosed at a lower level
- Liking was stronger if the person perceived the disclosure to be selective
- This gives research support for the importance of self disclosure in the maintenance and formation of a relationship
33
Why could self disclosure be argued to be detrimental to the maintenance of a relationship?
Cooper and Sportolan (1997) had a theory called 'Boom and Bust'. This suggested the online relationships had very high levels of self disclosure due to the anonymity and comfort that the online presence provides. As a result, relationships become very intense very quickly and become difficult to sustain
34
Why did Knop (2016) favour face-to-face self disclosure?
A person who is disclosing appreciates non-verbal cues such as eye contact and attentive silence, both of which is absent in the online environment
35
What research can support self disclosure?
Has and Hartford (1998) found that 57% of gay men and women considered open self-disclosure as a main way to maintain close relationships. This demonstrates the importance of self-disclosure in romantic relationships, just as the theory has predicted.
36
What is a key weakness of self disclosure?
Cultural and individual differences - different people value self disclosure at different levels. Chen (1995) found that westerners are more likely to engage in self disclosure than non Westerners. Lacks population validity
37
What is meant by complementarity of needs?
The first component of the filter theory that refers to how well two people fit together as a couple and meet each other's needs
38
What is the filter theory?
Choosing romantic partners by using a series of filters to narrow down 'the field of availables', from which we might make our choice
39
What is meant by similarity in attitudes?
The second filter of the filter theory. If people share similar attitudes, values and beliefs; then communication is easier and so a relationship is more likely to progress.
40
What is meant by social demography?
Refers to variable such as age, social background and location. These factors determine the likelihood of individuals in the first place
41
Who devised the filter theory?
Kerckhoff and Davis (1962)
42
Summarise the filter theory
- Different filters are prominent at different stages of partner selection
- During the early stages, demographic similarities are likely to be the most important factors in initiating a relationship
- As the relationship develops, a similarity of attitudes and underlying values become more important in determining the success of a relationship
- Finally, partners are assessed in terms of wether they are compatible and whether their personality traits complement each other
43
What was the procedure for the Kerckhoff and Davis filter theory study?
- Longitudinal study, 94 dating couples, US university
- 2 questionnaires that assessed similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs
- 7 months after initial testing, couples completed a further questionnaire assessing differences in closeness compared to beginning of study
- Researchers suggested that this would indicate 'progress toward permanence' in the relationship
44
What were the findings for the Kerckhoff and Davis filter theory study?
- Couples that had been seeing each other less than 18 months (short term), similarity of attitudes was the dominant indicator of partner closeness
- Longer term couples, only complementarity of needs was indicative of partner closeness
45
What were the 3 filters used to narrow down the field of availables?
1. Social Demography
2. Similarity in attitudes
3. Complementarity of needs
46
Outline social demography as a component of the filter theory
- Determine likelihood of initiating relationship in first place
- Same/similar demography, feel at ease due to having things in common
- Find more attractive because can relate to them
- In this stage, attraction has more to do with social factors rather than individual characteristics
47
Outline similarity in attitudes as a component of the filter theory
- Similarity in attitudes and values, important for relationship initiation and maintenance
- Partners who are very different in terms of their attitudes and values are not considered suitable for continuing a relationship, and so are filtered out from the field of possible long term partners
48
Outline complementarity of needs as a component of the filter theory
- Partners have mutual satisfaction when fulfilling each other's needs
- Needs should be complementary rather than similar of marriages are to work
- Long term relationships require harmony rather than conflict
49
What did Gruber-Baldini (1995) do that supported the social demography filter?
- Longitudinal study, couples aged 21
- Found those who were similar in educational level and age at the start of the relationship were more likely to stay together
- This demonstrates importance of sociodemographic factors in building and sustaining relationships
50
What did Levinger (1974) say that suggests limitations of the filter theory?
Many studies have failed to replicate the original findings that formed the basis of the filter theory. This means it lacks reliability and generalisability
51
What did Davis and Rusbult (2001) say that suggests limitations of the filter theory?
- Discovered attitude alignment effect occurred in longer term relationships
- Suggesting similarity of attitudes is an effect of initial attraction and not the cause
52
What is a criticism of the social demography filter?
It lacks temporal validity because the rise of online dating has changed the process of initiating a relationship. The increased field of availables may have altered our view on who we may pursue a relationship with
53
What is meant by the social exchange theory?
The likelihood of a person staying in a relationship is determined by an assessment of profits, how the relationship measures up against expectations and what they might achieve in a different relationship
54
Who devised the social exchange theory and what assumption as made about its role in relationships?
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) created the assumption that all social behavior in relationships operates on a series of exchanges - individuals attempt to maximise rewards and minimize costs. The expectation is to earn a profit.
55
Give some examples of 'rewards' within a relationship
- Companionship
- Sex
- Being cared for
56
Give some examples of 'costs' within a relationship
- Energy
- Wasting time
- Financial investment
57
What is the 4 stage model of long term relationships? (Social Exchange Theory)
1. Exploration of rewards and costs
2. Bargain in their current relationship
3. Reach a level of commitment s the exchange of rewards become predictable
4. At the institutionalization stage they have settled down
58
What are the 3 components of the social exchange theory?
1. Profits
2. Comparison level
3. Comparison level for alternatives
59
Outline the comparison level as a component of the social exchange theory
The relationship is compared to previous experience and expectations of what is appropriate. If a favourable comparison is made then we are motivated to maintain the relationship
60
Outline the comparison level for alternatives as a component of the social exchange theory
This is concerned with comparing benefits of the relationship with possible alternative relationships, or how they would feel being out of the relationship and its costs e.g) more time with friends
61
What did Hatfield et al find about people who were under-benefitted in relationships? (Social Exchange)
They felt angry, resentful and deprived. This supports the idea of a desire for profitability in relationships
62
When Levinger applied the social exchange theory to marriage he fund 3 factors that are likely to lead to marital breakdown. What are these?
1. Low amounts of positive satisfaction
2. No great barriers to leaving the marriage
3. A high number of attractive alternatives
This supports all 3 components for the social exchange theory
63
What are 2 key criticisms of the social exchange theory?
- Emphasises self interest and underestimates attachment and emotional influences (people stay in abusive and unrewarding relationships)
- Assumes that people spend a considerable amount of time monitoring their relationships, Duck (1994) argued that this only happens when they are already dissatisfied. Therefore, it is better applied to relationship breakdown
64
What is meant by the term equity theory?
A theory which claims people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship equals what they put in
65
The equity theory is an extension of the social exchange theory, but how do they differ from each other?
The central assumption with these theories is that people are most comfortable when they are getting the benefits they deserve from a relationship. However, the difference is that an equitable relationship is when both partners feel their benefits and costs are equal, rather than seeking a profit
66
What would it mean for high inequity in a relationship?
High inequity = high dissatisfaction/stress.
Over benefitted = pity, guilt, shame
Under benefitted = anger, sadness, resentment
67
What did Schafer and Keith suggest from their study of equity in marriages?
- Surveyed hundreds of married couples
| - Marriages were inequitable due to unfair division of domestic responsibilities
68
What did Hatfield and Rapson (2011) suggest from their study of equity in marriages?
- Equity depends on the stage of the relationship
- Initial stage: reward/equity = important
- Committed stage: less concerned
- Happily married: don't keep score
69
What did Byer and Wang (2004) suggest about the relationship between equitable and long lasting relationships?
Couples in equitable relationships are also less likely to risk extra marital affairs than their peers and so relationships are generally longer lasting
70
What are the 3 different ways to deal with inequity? (Hatfield + Rapson)
1. Restoration of actual equity - voluntarily setting things right or urging their partners to do so
2. Restoration of psychological equity - distorting reality and convincing themselves that things are fine the way they are
3. Leave the relationship - this can be physical (divorce) or emotional (no longer have feelings)
71
What was the procedure for the Stafford and Canary (2006) equity theory study?
- Asked 200 married couples to complete measures or equity/satisfaction
- Each spouse was also asked questions about relationship maintenance: - assurance (affection/commitment)
- sharing tasks
- positivity
72
What were the findings for the Stafford and Canary (2006) equity theory study?
- Satisfaction was highest for spouses was perceived equity, followed by over-benefitted and under benefitted
- Under benefitted husbands reported significantly lower levels of maintenance strategies
- The relationship between equity and marital happiness was complementary
73
What are some key weakness of equity theory?
- Gender differences; women are more disturbed by gender differences than men
- Cultural differences with perception of equity
- Problem of causality; dissatisfaction tis the cause not consequence of inequity
74
What did Huseman (1987) say about individual differences with level of equity sensitivity?
3 types of sensitivity: benevolent, equity sensitives, entitleds.
Benevolents = givers, more tolerant of under rewarding equity
Equity Sensitives = experience tension when faced with inequity
Entitleds = prefer over reward, hold attitude they are owed and entitled to receive benefits and so they are dissatisfied with inequity
75
What are some key strengths of equity theory?
- Equity theory supports matching hypothesis
| - Supported by research studies
76
What is meant by the investment model?
An explanation of relationship stability that emphasises the importance of 3 factors (satisfaction, investment size and quality of alternatives) in determining relationship commitment
77
What is commitment? (investment model)
The likelihood that an individual will persist with their current relationship. it is influenced by satisfaction level and low quality alternatives
78
What is meant by investment? (investment model)
A measure of all the resources attached to the relationship. These would be lost if the relationship were to end
79
What is meant by quality/comparison of alternatives? (investment model)
An individual's assessment of whether their needs might be better fulfilled by somebody other than their current partner
80
What is satisfaction? (investment model)
A measure of the degree to which the current partner gratifies a person's important needs
81
What was the procedure for the Le and Agnew (2003) study? (Investment Model)
- Meta analysis of 52 studies
- Each of the studies had explored the different components of the investment and the relation between them
- This produced a total sample of over 11,00 participants (54% male,46% female) from 5 countries (USA, UK, Netherlands, Israel and Taiwan)
82
What were the findings for the Le and Agnew (2003) study? (Investment Model)
- Across all the studies; satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size were highly correlated with relationship commitment
- The correlation between satisfaction and commitment was found to be significantly stronger than either quality f alternatives and investment size
83
How could you evaluate the Le and Agnew (2003) investment model study?
Heavy reliance on self report techniques reduces reliability and validity
84
What is Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown?
A model of relationship breakdown that describes the different phases that people go through during the dissolution of romantic relationship
85
Outline the dyadic phase - Duck (1982)
An individual confronts their partner and discusses their feelings, discontent and the future of the relationship. - Uncertainty, complaints and hostility
86
Outline the grave dressing phase - Duck (1982)
Partners strive to construct a representation of the failed relationship that does not paint it in unfavourable terms - 'saving face' 'time to get a new life'
87
Outline the intrapsychic phase - Duck (1982)
An individual proofs over their current relationship and considers whether the might be better off without it. - 'I'd be justified in withdrawing'
88
Chronologically state the 5 phases of the model
1. Breakdown
2. Intrapsychic
3. Dyadic
4. Social
5. Grave dressing
89
Outline the social phase - Duck (1982)
Discontentment is revealed to friends and family, as the distress experience by partners is made public
