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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What does MSM stand for?

A

Multi store memory model

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2
Q

What does coding mean?

A

The form in which information is stored

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3
Q

What does capacity mean?

A

How much information can be stored

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4
Q

What is the duration?

A

How long information can be stored for

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5
Q

What are the 5 sensory memory stores?

A 
Haptic store (touch)
Olafactory store (smell)
Iconic store (sight)
Echoic store (hearing)
Gustatory store (taste)
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6
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

The ability to generalise research effect beyond the setting in which it is demonstrated

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7
Q

Sensory memory capacity

A

Large 42%

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8
Q

Sensory memory experiment scholar

A

Sperling

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9
Q

Sensory memory duration + scholar

A

200-500 ms.

Walsh/Thompson

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10
Q

Sensory memory coding + scholar

A

1 out of 5 senses.

Crowder

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11
Q

What is the STM experiment?

A

Jacobs digit span

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12
Q

What are the capacity results for STM? (Miller and Cowan)

A 
7 +/- 2 (M)
4 chunks (C)
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13
Q

What is the duration for STM? (+scholar)

A

20 seconds without rehearsal

Peterson + Peterson Trigram

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14
Q

What is the coding for STM?

A

Mostly acoustic

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15
Q

What are some criticisms of the trigram experiment?

A
  • There are exceptions
  • Artificial (lacks mundane realism)
  • Could be displaced rather than decayed
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16
Q

What are the 3 types of coding?

A

Visual
Acoustic
Semantic

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17
Q

LTM Capacity

A

Unable to define, large capacity

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18
Q

LTM duration scholar

A

Bahrick et al (1975)

Unlimited/At least 48 years

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19
Q

What is the procedure for Jacobs digit span experiment?

A

Participants are presented with increasingly longer lists of digits/letters, in which they must then recall in the correct order.

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20
Q

What are 2 criticisms of Jacobs digit span?

A
  • Artificial stimuli

- Lacks mundane realism

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21
Q

What is the procedure for Peterson & Peterson Trigram experiment?

A

The researcher will say 3 letters and 3 numbers (e.g ABC123) and the participant has to count back in 3’s for a duration of time until they are told to stop. They must then recall the 3 letters. This duration of time increases each time.

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22
Q

What technique did Bahrick use to test long term memory? (LTM)

A

Yearbook

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23
Q

What is a criticism Bahrick’s experiment? (LTM)

A

There is a lack of control over variables. E.g, the participant might have seen the yearbook recently, they might still be in contact etc.

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24
Q

LTM Coding

A

Mainly semantic

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25
Q

What is the procedure for Glanzer and Cunitz serial position experiment?

A

Presented two groups with the same list of words. One group recalled the words immediately whilst the other group waited 30 seconds. During this time, group 2 counted backwards in 3s to prevent rehearsal and eliminate the recency effect.

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26
Q

What did Glanzer and Cunitz conclude from their experiment? (serial position experiment)

A

The earliest words were put into the long term memory because of the primacy effect the participant can rehearse the words. The words from the end of the lists went into the short term memory due to the recency effect. This means that there are separate stores for LTM and STM.

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27
Q

Who came up with the working memory model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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28
Q

What does the WMM imply about short term memory?

A

It is more complex than the MSM suggests

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29
Q

What is the working memory model?

A

A system of short term memory, it is more than just storage it is active and able to process cognitive activities

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30
Q

What are the main parts of the working memory model?

A 
Central executive
Phonological loop
Primary acoustic store
Articulatory process
Visual spatial sketchpad
Visual cache 
Inner scribe
Episodic buffer
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31
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

It allocates tasks - it has limited capacity

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32
Q

What does the primary acoustic store do?

A

Holds the words that are heard

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33
Q

What does the articulatory process do?

A

It is sub vocal repetition that acts as an inner voice

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34
Q

What does the visual cache do?

A

Processes visual information about shape (form) and colour

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35
Q

What does the inner scribe do?

A

It processes visual information and deals with spatial awareness

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36
Q

What does the episodic buffer do?

A

Processes information from PL and VSS

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37
Q

What would happen if the same store was being used for two concurrent tasks?

A

There would be interference and tasks are found to require more cognitive demand and not be completed successfully

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38
Q

What would happen if different stores were being for two concurrent tasks?

A

There would be no interference and tasks can be completed with success

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39
Q

What is an example of dual task processing for the phonological loop?

A

Recall word list with articulatory suppression

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40
Q

What is an example of dual task processing for the visual spatial sketchpad?

A

American football whilst driving (Baddeley)

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41
Q

What are 4 characteristics of the central executive?

A
  • Controls 3 slave systems
  • Decides when/where attention is needed
  • Limited capacity
  • Switches attention between different inputs
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42
Q

Why did Baddeley add the episodic buffer to the WMM?

A

Another store with more capacity was required

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43
Q

What are 4 criticisms of laboratory experiments?

A
  • Lack ecological validity
  • Participants know they are being studied and this could affect behaviour
  • Less natural
  • Demand characteristics
44
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Personal memories of events. This kind of memory includes contextual detail plus emotional tone

45
Q

Is episodic memory explicit or implicit?

A

Explicit - knowing that

46
Q

What are 3 elements of episodic memory?

A

Specific detail, context and emotion

47
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Memory of how to do something e.g, riding a bike. These memories are automatically as a result of repeated practice

48
Q

Is procedural memory implicit or explicit?

A

Implicit - knowing how

49
Q

What are 2 features of procedural memory?

A
  • Acquired through repetition and practice

- Attention to procedure disrupts automatic performance

50
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Shared memories for facts and knowledge. These memories may be concrete (ice is made from water) or abstract (mathematical knowledge)

51
Q

What are 2 features of semantic memory?

A
  • Shared rather than personal

- Starts off episodic and transitions into semantic when memory loses its association

52
Q

3 points of evaluation for LTM

A
  • Brain scans
  • Distinguishing implicit and explicit (Case of HM)
  • Distinguishing episodic and semantic
53
Q

What did Endel Tulving do? (Episodic)

A
  • Injected gold, used neuro imaging
  • Found different blood flow patterns between semantic and episodic
  • Suggests separate forms of LTM
54
Q

What is a criticism of Tulving’s findings? (Episodic)

A

Only 3/6 participants showed differences and these were associates of Tulving

55
Q

What are the 3 main areas of the brain used for episodic memory?

A

Initial coding - prefrontal cortex
Strengthening - neocortex
Connected by hippocampus

56
Q

What did Kroenig do? (Semantic)

A

Crutter: rule based trial and similarity based trial

57
Q

What did Kroenig find? (Semantic)

A

Alzheimers patients found it harder to do the rule based trial due to increased cognitive demand

58
Q

What is the coding for semantic memory?

A

Frontal and temporal lobes

59
Q

What did Finke do? (Procedural)

A
  • Professional cellist had severe amnesia
    He had the ability to read and play music however he could not form new semantic or episodic memories. This suggests separate stores
60
Q

What is meant by procedural memory being non declarative?

A

It is easy to do but difficult to put into words (tieing shoe laces)

61
Q

What is significant of procedural memory?

A

It does not require the hippocampus

62
Q

What areas of the brain are used for procedural memory?

A

Neocortex: primary motor cortex, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

63
Q

What is a key problem about using evidence from brain damaged patients?

A

It is difficult to be certain of the exact parts of the brain that have been affected until a patient has died. Damage to a particular part of the brain does not always mean that area is responsible for a particular behaviour

64
Q

What is the interference theory? (explanations for forgetting)

A

When information in LTM is disrupted by other (often similar) information

65
Q

What is meant by the retroactive effect? Give an example

A

When new memories have a backwards effect on trying to retrieve older traces.
e.g) Schmidt (2000) street names where you grew up

66
Q

What was the Postman experiment? (Forgetting)

A

2 groups - control, experimental.
Told to learn list of word pairs
Experimental group were given a 2nd list, control only had 1

67
Q

What were the findings and conclusions of postman experiment? (Forgetting)

A

F: Control group’s recall was more accurate for list 1
C: Proves RI because new memories (list 2) interfered with the experimental groups ability to recall list 1 (old memories)

68
Q

What are 3 limitations of the interference theory?

A
  • Similar conditions are required
  • Lab based artificial research to support
  • Some people are less affected by proactive interference than others (working memory)
69
Q

What are 2 strengths of the interference theory?

A
  • Real world applications

- Research findings

70
Q

What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?

A
  • Interference

- Cue dependent retrieval failure

71
Q

What is a cue?

A

A trigger to help retrieve a memory

72
Q

When does retrieval failure occur?

A

When there is an absence of cues

73
Q

What is context dependent forgetting?

A

Cues occur within external environment

74
Q

What is state dependent forgetting?

A

Cues occur within internal environment (drunk or sober)

75
Q

What is eye witness testimony?

A

Evidence provided in court by a person who has witnessed a crime, with a view to identifying the perpetrator of the crime

76
Q

What is a leading question?

A

A question (through its form or content) suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads the witness to the desired answer

77
Q

What is inattention blindness?

A

The failure to perceive an unexpected visual object

78
Q

What are 3 problems with EWT?

A
  • Monkey business illusion (Simons and Chabris, 1999, invisible gorilla)
  • Inattentional blindness
  • Expectations and schema affect the encoding and retrieval of memory
79
Q

Summarise Bartlett 1932 experiment (EWT)

A
  • Read story to participants

- Asked them to reproduce straight away and after a period of time

80
Q

What did Bartlett 1932 find and conclude from his research? (EWT)

A
  • Main idea of story was remembered
  • They changed unfamiliar elements of the story to make sense for them
    Bartlett concluded that memory are not copies of experience but similar reconstructions
81
Q

What is misleading information?

A

Supplying information that may lead a witness’ memory for a crime to be altered

82
Q

What did US statistics find about EWT?

A

200 convictions that were based on EWT, 75% were found innocent by DNA tests

83
Q

What factors could affect the accuracy of EWT?

A
  • Expectations/schema
  • Pro/retroactive interference
  • Leading/misleading questions
  • Anxiety
  • Post event discussion
84
Q

What was did Loftus and Palmer investigate for EWT?

A

Whether the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory

85
Q

What was the Loftus and Palmer procedure for the EWT experiment?

A
  • Showed video of a car crash

- Asked participants how fast they think the car was going when it smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted the other car

86
Q

What did Loftus and Palmer find for the EWT experiment?

A
  • Estimated speed was affected by the verb used

- Participants recalled a faster speed for the more aggressive verbs (Smashed = 40.8mph, Contacted = 31.8 mph)

87
Q

What did Loftus and Palmer conclude for the EWT experiment?

A

EWT might be biased by the way questions are asked

88
Q

What are the 2 possible explanations for Loftus and Palmers EWT conclusion?

A

Substitution explanation

Response bias explanation

89
Q

What is the substitution explanation?

A

The wording of the questions actually change an individuals memory of the event

90
Q

What is the response bias explanation?

A

The wording doesn’t change the memory it just influences how they choose to answer

91
Q

What are some criticisms of Loftus and Palmer’s EWT experiment?

A
  • Real life vs lab experience
  • Demand characteristics
  • Ethical issues (traumatic, deceit)
  • Individual differences (older people have more impaired memory)
92
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

A conversation between co-witnesses (or an interviewer and an eye witness) after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’ memory of an event

93
Q

What was the Gabbert (2003) experiment about post event discussion?

A
  • 2 groups watched video of same event

- Pairs in one condition were encouraged to discuss before asked to recall

94
Q

What did Gabbert (2003) find and conclude for his experiment about post event discussion?

A
  • 71% of witnesses went on to mistakenly recall items (acquired during discussion)
  • 60% said girl was guilty even though they did not see her commit the crime

He concluded that discussion affects the accuracy of EWT

95
Q

What is a weakness of Gabbert’s post event discussion experiment?

A

It might not be PED, it could be poor memory or social conformity

96
Q

What is the Yerkes Dobson effect?

A

The observation that arousal (anxiety) has a negative effect on memory recall when it is very low or high but moderate levels are actually beneficial due to increased attention and alertness

97
Q

What is the weapon focus effect?

A

The view that a weapon distracts attention from other features in a crime and therefore reduces accuracy of identification

98
Q

Summarise the procedure for Johnson and Scott’s (1976) weapon focus effect study

A
  • Participants in waiting room , hear an argument in next room
  • Man came through with either a pen covered in grease (low anxiety condition) or a knife covered in blood (high anxiety, weapon focus)
  • Participants later asked to identify the man
99
Q

What did Johnson and Scott (1976) find and conclude for the weapon focus effect study?

A
  • 49% identified pen man correctly
  • 33% for knife man
  • Loftus found eye movement was drawn to weapon

Concluded that anxiety can have a negative effect in EWT

100
Q

What is a cognitive interview?

A

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context of the time in order to increase the accessibility of stored information

101
Q

What do cognitive interviews aim to do?

A
  • Remember how they felt/reconstruct scene (context)
  • Avoid using existing schemas
  • Avoid using leading questions
102
Q

What are 3 key features of a STANDARD police interview?

A
  • Revolves around interviewer
  • Witnesses are discouraged from adding extra information
  • Leading questions
103
Q

What are some of the problems of standard police interviews?

A
  • Information could be withheld

- Answers may be abbreviated

104
Q

What 2 principles of memory is the cognitive interview based on?

A
  1. Organisation of memory

2. Context of memory

105
Q

What are the 4 elements of a cognitive interview?

A
  1. Mental reinstatement of original context
  2. Report everything
  3. Change order
  4. Change perspective
106
Q

What are the key strengths of the cognitive interview?

A
  • Proved to be more accurate (Geiselman, 1985)
  • Advantageous for older participants
  • Can be modified for younger and vulnerable witnesses
107
Q

What are some of the weaknesses of the cognitive interview?

A
  • Police personnel have to be specially trained, this is expensive and time consuming
  • 61% increase in incorrect information (Kohnken, 1999)
  • Some aspects are used more than others, it is difficult to assess its effectiveness

psychology. (11 decks)

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