Relationships

Question 1

Evolution

Answer 1

Darwin- the product of adaptation through natural selection

Question 2

Human reproductive behaviour

Answer 2

different mating strategies used by males and females

Question 3

Sexual selection

Answer 3

selection of characteristics increasing reproductive success

Question 4

Intra-sexual selection

Answer 4

female is passive and males compete for her

Question 5

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 5

female is active and males compete

Question 6

Socio-biological explanation

Answer 6

theory of relationships based on biological determinants

Question 7

Male strategies (5)

Answer 7

1- courtship rituals 
2- size (look up?)
3- mate guarding
4- sperm competition
5-sneak copulation

Question 8

Female strategies (3)

Answer 8

1-Sexy sons hypothesis - females seek attractive males so they can have sons that look like the father

2-Handicap hypothesis - Zahavi 1975
females choose males with handicaps because it shows ability to survive which shows superior genetic quality

3-Courtship- choose strong men etc successful offspring

Question 9

Eval evidence for buss

1) who and when
2) aim
3) procedure
4) findings
5) conclusion/results

Answer 9

Achim and Koch 2004
aim- to test Buss’s theory that males fear sexual infidelity more and women fear emotional infidelity more
procedure- 100 male and 100 female university students were given a questionnaire on romantic situations and the final question read that if you found out your partner was in a passionate sexual relationship

Question 10

Filter theory

Answer 10

Kerckhoff and Davis 1962

series of filters that opearate at a different stage in forming a relationship

Question 11

Filters in Filter Theory

Answer 11

Social demographic theory
what you personally want in a person (religion, age, which country you are from)
Similarity in attitudes
beliefs, values and interests which are similar
complementary filter
how people complete each others needs

Question 12

Matching Hypothesis

Answer 12

Walster 1966

people choose partners as attractive as themselves

Question 13

Computer dance study

Answer 13

Walster 1966
376 male and 376 female univeristy students, were told that they were going to be paired by a computer but that was a lie. during the ‘dance’ the participants filled in a questionnaire about their ‘date’. 4 to 6 months later, participants were contacted to see if they had gone of further dates with their partner at the dance
Results
Participants who were similarly attractive were not more liked than dates. Participants who were more attractive than their dates were liked more than their date
Conclusions
NOT SUPPORTED people like attractive people no matter how they look

Question 14

Evaluation of Computer Dance

Answer 14

• ethics - participants were deceived
• low ecological validity
  + disproved matching hypothesis

Question 15

Factors affecting attraction

Answer 15

self-disclosure

sharing intimate details increased attraction to a degree

Question 16

Levels of self-disclosure

Answer 16

appropriateness - telling details at the right time
attributions - ‘only you know’
gender differences
content of disclosure

Question 17

Self - disclosure research

Answer 17

Collins and Miller 1994
Meta analysis of studies about self-disclosure
it was found that those who gave intimate self-disclosure are more attractive than those who give less intimate self-disclosure. People also had a higher attraction rate to people they disclosed to.
This meta-analysis supports the idea that self-disclosure is a factor affecting attraction

Question 18

Taylor et al online dating

Answer 18

Taylor 2011
observed activity logs on a dating website
it was found that users were more likely to message someone who was more attractive than them.
The results go against the matching hypothesis becaue the matching hypothesis states that you should be with someone who is as attractive as you.

Question 19

Anisogamy

Answer 19

difference in amount of gametes that genders have

revoles around reproductive advantage

Question 20

Sprecher 2013

Answer 20

Aim: investigate whether recriprical rather than one-sided self-disclosure is more influential in determining attraction
Procedure: 106 american graduates were paired in reciprical and non-reciprical dyads. People in each Dyad did not know each other and were disclosed over skype. in reciprical condition, Dyad members took turn in asking question and disclosing.
Non-reciprical condition, one person asked questions and other one disclosed in first interaction and swtiched roles. They were assessed for liking and closeness and preceived similarity and enjoyment
Findings:
Recriprical dyad’s had higher levels of factors than non-reciprical condition
turn-taking self-disclosure has a better than switching roles called extended reciprocity

Question 21

Sprecher - year, aim, procedure, findings

Answer 21

2013- Aim: investigate whether recriprical rather than one-sided self-disclosure is more influential in determining attraction
Procedure: 106 american graduates were paired in reciprical and non-reciprical dyads. People in each Dyad did not know each other and were disclosed over skype. in reciprical condition, Dyad members took turn in asking question and disclosing.
Non-reciprical condition, one person asked questions and other one disclosed in first interaction and swtiched roles. They were assessed for liking and closeness and preceived similarity and enjoyment
Findings:
Recriprical dyad’s had higher levels of factors than non-reciprical condition
turn-taking self-disclosure has a better than switching roles called extended reciprocity

Question 22

Study Kerckhoff and Davis

Answer 22

1962
Filter Theory 
Aim: which factors at certain stages in relationship influence 'progression towards permanence' 
Procedure 
Longitudinal 
94 undergraduate American couples 
completed 2 questionnaires 
index of value of consensus 
FIRO-B test 
follow up survey 7 months later 
Findings: 
similarity in attitudes in significant in couples who dated less than 18 months 
complementarity of needs was for couples dating for 18 months of more

Question 23

Evaluation of Filter Theory

Answer 23

+ Taylor et al 2010
85% of americans married someone from the same ethnic background
- less relevant because of multicultural society
- lack of temporal validity Levinger 1978 studies failed to replicate Kerckkoff and Davis study
- Davis, Anderson, Rusbault suggest people become more similar in different way and the more time they spend in a relationship not defining part of their attraction

Question 24

Gender difference study (evolutionary theory) Key study

Answer 24

Buss study 1989
Aim: explore gender differences in mate selection
Procedure: Questionnaire with data from over 10,000 men and women from 37 different cultures
participants asked to rate characteristics on a four point scale.
FIndings:
Women value mates with rescources
Men value physical attractiveness and youth
both Sexes valued intelligence and kindness

Question 25

Comparison level

Answer 25

standard of profitability formed from previous experiences in relationships and cultural norms (Social exchange theory)

Question 26

Thibault and Kelly's stages of relationships

Answer 26

``` Sampling Rewards and costs assessed Bargaining sources of profit and loss indentified Commitment relationship is established by predictable exchange of rewards Institutionalisation couple 'settle down' ```

Question 27

Social exchange theory (SET)

Answer 27

thibault and Kelly 1964 economic maintenance of relationship maximise rewards and minimise costs

Question 28

Equity theory

Answer 28

extension of SET People are getting what they deserve in relationship achieve fairness feelings of guilt and shame if over-benefitting feelings of anger and resentment if under-benefitting

Question 29

Evaluation of SET

Answer 29

+ Brosman and De Waal 2003 female capuchin monkeys became angry if they did not receive grapes for playing a game + - equity sensitivity determines how much somebody would tolerate inequity Huseman et al indentified 3 categories of individuals benevolents, entitleds, and equity sensitives individual differences in concept of equity sensitivity - Gender differences women see themselves as under-benefitted more than men De Maris et al 2010 women have a greater focus on relationship - cultural differences equity is not as important in non-western cultures - problem of causality reasons why inequity is unclear Clark 1984 argued that in most relationships couples do not think in reward and equity Clark if they do marriage is in trouble when problems in marriage arise, they focus on bad habits

Question 30

Investment model (name, year, 4 parts)

Answer 30

``` Rusbult 1980 model of committment stability over relationship 1- satisfaction relationship fills persons needs 2- comparison individual feels that they are 3- investment size 4- commitment level 3 levels lead to stability of relationships ```

Question 31

Le and Agnew Investment model main study (date and what they did, part of what theory)

Answer 31

``` Le and Agnew 2003 meta analysis of 52 studies 5 countries, 11,000 people involving looking at satisfaction level and committment quality of alternatives and investment findings: satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size committed staying in relationships too simplistic explanation ```

Question 32

Equity Theory Research that supports it

Answer 32

- hatfield 1979 asked newly weds what their partner contributed to the relationship least satified were those who underbenifitted next least satified were those who over-benifitted equal relationships were the most satisfactory

Question 33

Limitation of equity theory example

Answer 33

Arygle 1988 found that one over benefitted men were as satisfied as they were in equal marriages over benifitted were least satisfied

Question 34

Investment model Evaluation

Answer 34

+ supported by Le and Agnew study + supported by models across all different cultures - difficult to measure committment - relies on self-report measures that is subjective - can't explain abusive people in relationships - future is important Agnew lose future plans

Question 35

SET key study

Answer 35

Kurdik and Schmitt 1986 Procedure: investigated importance of social exchange factors in 44 straight married couples. 50 same sex male couples. 56 same sex female couples. each couple lived together and had no children Findings greater relationship satisfaction was associated with A perception of benefits of current relationship and B comparing benefits in other relationship's goes against evolutionary

Question 36

Equity Theory Key study

Answer 36

Stafford and Canary 2006 Aim: equity and satisfaction predicted use of maintenance strategies in marriage Procedure: 200 married couples completed questionnaires on equity and relationship satisfaction Findings: satisfaction highest for spouses who perceived relationship as equitable followed by over-benefitted partners then by under-benefitted partners relationship between equity and marital happiness = complementary

Question 37

satisfaction level (investment model)

Answer 37

postive and negative emotions experienced in a relationship influenced by how partner fulfills the most important needs

Question 38

Quality of alternatives (investment model)

Answer 38

looking at other people and seeing if relationship will be better

Question 39

Investment size (investment Model)

Answer 39

measure of all resources in relationship

Question 40

Committment Level (investment model)

Answer 40

likelihood of persisting with current relationship

Question 41

Evaluation of Investment model

Answer 41

+ real world application model explains why individuals + may persist in abusive relationships despite low satisfaction they may lack alternatives or have too much invested in their partner (ending relationship is too expensive) + Li 2018 confirmed relationship between the commitment level and the investment on social media site wechat study shows that more investment = more commitment - difficult to measure commitment is hard to measure, Rusbult knew this and came up with IMS, which is a self-report technique and people can lie - some relationships may persist because of future plans that the couple has together not because of other factors in relationship Goodfriend and Agnew 2008

Question 42

Duck Phase model of breakdown definition

Answer 42

a model of relationship breakdown that describes the different phases people go through during the breakup of a romantic relationship

Question 43

Duck's four phases of relationship breakdown (4)

Answer 43

1-Intrapsychic phase One partner feels dissatisfaction and thinks about breaking up but does not talk about it 2- Dyadic phase Individuals confront partner and talk about feelings uncertainty, anxiety, hostility, complaints talking about relationships 3- Social phase Social phase go public look at other people for support, talk to friends and family, sides may be taken 4-Grave-dressing phase each partner tries to present themselves as loyal

Question 44

Evaluation of Duck's relationship breakdown

Answer 44

- fails to reflect possibility of growth after breakdown added resurrection process in 2006 personal growth because of the breakup - ethical issues person might want to protect themselves + Tashiro and Frazier 2003 92 undergraduates found that after breakdown, individuals feel better when they focus on the situation not personal flaws + has real world application - stresses commication in relationship breakdown helps prevent breakup + Hatfield et al 1984 individuals burdened by resentment leads to withdrawal to consider their position +reserrection process |(rollie and duck 2006)

Question 45

Gating

Answer 45

barriers that limit oppurtunities for the less attractive shy or less socially skilled so they can form relationships in face to face encounters

Question 46

Virtual relationships

Answer 46

relationships conducted through the internet rather than face to face

Question 47

Self-disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 47

revealing personal information varies in public and private broadcasting self-disclosure sharing personal information in a public situation edited version of the self

Question 48

levels of self-disclosure in virtual relationships (include study to support this)

Answer 48

- higher levels of self-disclosure usually is more intimate - Rubin 1975 strangers on a train if you are on a train people disclosed more personal information to strangers than people they know

Question 49

gates in virtual relationships (and research)

Answer 49

absense of gating in computer mediated communication is that the true self of gated individuals is more likely to be active in internet relationship than real life (Zhao 2008)

Question 50

Eval of Virtual Relationships

Answer 50

+ tamir and mitchell 2012 found increased MRA activity in two brains regions associated with rewards when people are talking about themselves + Baker and Oswald 2010 those who scored high in questionnaire for shyness and facebook use was associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality - dangers of internet catfishing - online and offline worlds are separate

Question 51

Parasocial relationships

Answer 51

one-sided relationships that occur with media personalities outside of an individual's social network

Question 52

Possible reasons for parasocial relationship

Answer 52

it makes few demands don't risk rejection more likely in people who are similar to the individual and attractive to the individual

Question 53

Levels of parasocial relationships (name year 3)

Answer 53

``` McCutcheon 2002 Celebrity attitude scale Entertainment-social discussing media personalities with friends intense-personal obsessive and compulsive borderline pathological uncontrollable fantasies and celebrities can turn into a psychosis ```

Question 54

Absorption Addiction Model

Answer 54

McCutcheon 2002 people become psychologically absorbed with celebrity life as a form of escapism. absorption can become addictive initial interest then is developed through absorption then addiction. divorced from reality

Question 55

Parasocial relationship key study

Answer 55

Celebrity worship syndrome McCutcheon and Houran 2003 Aim: assess whether interest in media personalities divides into pathological or non-pathological Procedure: 600 participants completed personality test and were interviewed about interest in media personalities. Participants also rated statement based on feelings towards celebrity Findings: one third of participants showed celebrity worship syndrome. 20% followed for entertainment-social. 10% were intense-personal. 1% were borderline pathological Conclusions: refutes the view that celebrity worship is divisible. those that have intense attitudes towards celebrities are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety and social dsyfunction

Question 56

Attachment theory explanation

Answer 56

PSR's can be formed with those who have insecure childhood attachments. Insecure-resistant attachment styles are more likely to develop this because they need close relationship but fear rejection

Question 57

Three properties of attachment

Answer 57

Weiss 1991 1. proximity seeking reduce distance between themselves and the celebrity 2. secure base presence of attachment figure provides a sense of security 3. protest at disruption prolonged distress after your separated from attachment figure

Question 58

Evaluation of Parasocial relationships

Answer 58

+ Schmid and Klimmt 2011 found fans from Meixco and Germany showed very similar patterns of PSR - universal +Maltby 2003 used Eysenck personality questionnaire found entertainment-social level associated with extraversion and intense-personal with neurotism explains why higher PSR levels are associated with poor mental health - Absorption addiction model critisised for a description rather than an explanation and the form it may take but not looking at what causing it - a lot of research is correlational so cause and effect cannot be established and relies of self-report measures

Question 59

Key study evolutionary theory/sexual selection

Answer 59

Buss