Relationships

Question 1

Evolutionary psychologists in partner preferences

Answer 1

Believe that psychological processes people use to choose a partner are from evolution. Attractive traits are reliable indicators that a partner is a good bet for passing on our genes, for example Singh found that waist to hip ratio was related in attractiveness in women, argued it due to a reliable indicator of women’s ability to reproduce

Question 2

Sexual selection

Answer 2

Just like natural selection there was sexual selection, within a species there are certain characteristics that make an individual more able to find a partner, like being physically attractive, and reproduce. These characteristics give an individual a reproductive advantage, therefore they become more prevalent as they are more likely to be passed on to future generations. Two types of sexual selection are intra-sexual and inter-sexual

Question 3

Intra-sexual selection

Answer 3

When males compete (often aggressively) and the winner is rewarded with the female. The female is passive in the process so she doesn’t choose her own mate

Question 4

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 4

When males compete for the attention of a female and the female plays an active role in choosing her mate

Question 5

Conflict between natural selection and sexual selection

Answer 5

Sometimes traits that are attractive to a mate make an individual less likely to survive, so sexual selection can conflict with natural selection more generally. For example female peacocks find brightly coloured tails of males attractive but it also makes them more noticeable to predators. This created the handicap principle theory

Question 6

The Handicap Principle

Answer 6

Zahavi (1975) argued that displaying a noticeable handicap to survival actually indicates survival strength because if an individual has managed to survive (and ancestors survived to reproduce) despite having the unhelpful characteristic, then they must have superior genes. Can be applied to humans to, masculine facial features result from high testosterone which causes immune system to be less responsive so these features can be an indicator of ‘quality’ genes as they can afford the handicap

Question 7

Buss (1989)- Gender differences in partner preferences

Answer 7

Questionnaires were used to collect data from over 10,000 men and women from 37 different cultural groups. Women valued variables associated with gaining resources (money, safe environment) more highly than men. Men valued variables associated with reproductive capacity (youth) more highly than women. Concluded that women have had limited access to resources needed to provide for themselves and offspring and men’s reproductive success is limited by finding fertile women so they are attracted to women who are more fertile. Not a truly representative study but it is cross-cultural suggesting universality

Question 8

Sexual strategies theory

Answer 8

Theory argues that men and women apply various different strategies for choosing partners, depending on the situation. These strategies have evolved to help them meet the different requirements they have of long-term and short-term partners. Women try to assess the quality of genes whereas males of availability and fertility

Question 9

Strengths and Weaknesses of sexual strategy theory

Answer 9

The idea that men and women have different strategies is supported, the argument for men seeking fertility is also supported.
There are more similarities than differences between men and women’s responses in Buss’s study, more difference between cultures rather than genders. Explanations of partner choice don’t take into account social determinants of behaviour (women have less opportunities than men which can influence women’s choices). Lots of evidence comes from studies of other animals, cannot be generalised to humans

Question 10

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 10

Suggests that people try to maximise rewards from a relationship (attention, self-esteem, happiness), and minimise costs (time, money). If the relationship is to continue, then the rewards must not be outweighed by the costs, instead there should be profit so relationships are formed using a ‘cost-benefit analysis, striving to get more and give less can cause an unequal relationship

Question 11

Comparison Level (CL)

Answer 11

The amount of reward you believe you deserve to get based on experiences in previous relationships, which feeds into the expectations of our current one. Influenced by social norms. CL changes as we acquire more data from experiences

Question 12

Comparison Level for alternatives (CLalt)

Answer 12

In current relationship you consider whether you could gain greater rewards and fewer costs from another relationship or being on your own. Social exchange theory predicts that we will stay in our current relationship only as long as we believe it is more rewarding than an alternative but if an alternative is better we are more likely to end the relationship

Question 13

Relationship Development

Answer 13

1.Sampling, we consider potential rewards and costs of a relationship and compare it with others available at the time
2.Bargaining, we give and receive rewards to test whether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
3.Commitment, each partner knows how to elicit rewards from the other, lowering costs
4.Institutionalisation, relationship norms and expectations are firmly established

Question 14

Physical attractiveness

Answer 14

People will being a relationship if they find each other physically attractive. Attraction isn’t always about physical features but Cunningham(1986) found some in a study asking 75 males students to rate photos of 50 women. He found several features for attractiveness- large eyes, small noses, small chins, prominent cheekbones, narrow cheeks. Generally men are more likely than women to report appearance as important in attraction but both men and women consider it important for a short-term partner.

Question 15

Self-disclosure

Answer 15

Sharing information about yourself, including your views and feelings. People tend to like somebody more if they person has self-disclosed to them. It was found that self-disclosing to somebody tends to increase liking for that person

Question 16

Filter Theory

Answer 16

Proposes there are a series of ‘filters’ that operate at different stages of forming a relationship: Social demographic filter, Similarity in attitude filter, Complementarity filter. Model came from a study into long term relationships. Surveyed female uni students and their male partners who were considering marriage, 7months later did a follow up study to see how the relationship progressed. Found for couples under 18months if they had similar values they were more likely to progress but for couples over 18months it was those who had complementary needs. However this study was replicated across other uni’s and they found no significant difference overtime in either sharing values or having complementary needs

Question 17

Social demographic filter

Answer 17

The first filter. Initially we for, a ‘field of availables’- these are potential people to form a relationship with. Based on social and demographic factors such as age, religion, living near eachother, etc

Question 18

Similarity in attitudes filter

Answer 18

We narrow the set of available people down to a smaller ‘field of desirables’- these are people who a relationship is more likely to progress with. This filter is based on sharing similar attitudes, values and interests

Question 19

Complementarity filter

Answer 19

In the longer term, relationships will progress if both partners are fulfilling each others needs, so this filter is based on two people being a good complement to each other

Question 20

Walster et al (1966)- Matching Hypothesis

Answer 20

A ‘computer dance’ was advertised to uni students and tickets sold to 376 men and 376 women. The people selling tickets secretly rated each student for attractiveness. Pptts were told that a computer would match them with a date for the dance with similar interests (didn’t know they were in a study), instead they were randomly paired. During the dance pptts filled a questionnaire about their date and were contacted 4-6months later to see if they went on further dates. Pptts rated as more attractive were more liked and more frequently asked on further dates than less attractive, those with similar attractive levels were not significantly more liked than those with a different level. The matching hypothesis wasn’t supported, people prefer attractiveness regardless of their own attractiveness. Low ecological validity, very different from normal dating as they didn’t choose their dates, raters had a small amount of time to rate and people prepared for the dance and may have become more attractive and not matched their previous rating

Question 21

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Matching Hypothesis

Answer 21

White (1980) studies 123 couples. He found that couples who were only dating at the start of the study were more likely to have progressed to a serious relationship 9 months later if both partners were similarly attractive.
Results from Walster’s didn’t support it. The hypothesis says that matching affects who we choose to start a relationship with, but evidence supporting the theory comes from relationships that have already started

Question 22

The Investment Model- Rusbult(1980)

Answer 22

The stability of a relationship overtime is determined by how committed the individuals are to the relationship, and that depends on: satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, investment

Question 23

Quality of alternatives- investment model

Answer 23

Attractive alternatives- may leave the relationship. No alternative exists- may maintain the relationship. Sometimes having no relationship is a more attractive alternative than being in an unsatisfactory one

Question 24

Intrinsic investments

Answer 24

What we out directly in: time, money, personal info

Question 25

Extrinsic Investments

Answer 25

Resources associated with the relationship: shared pet, friends, children, memories

Question 26

Pros and Cons of investment model

Answer 26

Meta-analysis found a significant correlation between commitment to a relationship and satisfaction,quality of alternatives, investment. Commitment level was also found to be a significant predictor of longevity. Theory may be too simplistic in trying to describe how relations are formed- it’s quite complex. Theories also don’t consider cultural and gender factors, which can cause people to treat relationships in different ways

Question 27

Relationship maintenance mechanism

Answer 27

Commitment expresses itself in everyday maintenance behaviours. Enduring relationships act to promote and accommodate the relationships. Put partner’s interest first- willingness to sacrifice and forgive serious transgressions

Question 28

Equity Theory

Answer 28

Suggests that people expect relationships to be fair and equal. They want to receive rewards from relationships that are in balance with the rewards they provide for the partner, if unequal or unfair it produces discomfort and distress in both partners. Under benefit- anger, hostility, resentment. Over benefit- guilt, discomfort, shame.

Question 29

Hatfield et al (1979)- Equity Theory

Answer 29

Asked newlyweds to assess what they and their partner contributed to the relationship and their level of contentment with the marriage. The least satisfied were those who were under-benefited (unhappy about giving most). The next least we’re those who were over-benefited (felt guilty). Equal relationships were the most satisfactory

Question 30

Cons of Equity Theory

Answer 30

There may be sex differences in how we feel about unequal relationships. Argyle (1988) found that over benefited men were almost as satisfied as those in equitable marriages. Over benefited women were much less satisfied than women in equal relationships

Question 31

Duck’s four-phase break up model

Answer 31

Intra-psychic phase- inside the head of one person, one partner becomes dissatisfied with the relationship
Dyadic phase- between two people. The other partner is told about this
Social phase- beyond the couple. Break-up is made public, implications are discussed, the relationship can still be saved here (marital support, therapy).
Grave-dressing phase- finishing the relationship completely, ex-partners organise their lives post-relationship and tell their own version of the break-up and of current relation with ex.

Question 32

Evaluation of Ducks phase model

Answer 32

One phase clearly leads onto the next as a threshold point is reached. Doesn’t take into account individual differences and research evidence suggests it doesn’t show how complex breakdowns of relationships can be. For example some people may actively lead it to speed it up and some may be passive to let things resolve themselves. Doesn’t take into account cultural differences and it doesn’t explain why relationships may break down

Question 33

Pre-existing doom (phase model)

Answer 33

Incompatibility and failure are fairly much guaranteed from the start of the relationship

Question 34

Mechanical failure (phase model)

Answer 34

Two compatibles, well meaning people grow apart and find they cannot live together any longer

Question 35

Sudden death (phase model)

Answer 35

Discovery of infidelity or the occurrence of a traumatic incident (huge argument) leading to immediate ending of the relationship

Question 36

Joinson (2001)- Self disclosure in computer coms

Answer 36

Laboratory study, students paired and asked to discuss an abstract dilemma which stimulated conversation. Transcripts of convos were rated on levels of self-disclosure. Half discusses face to face and half on a chat programme (with half having a video on to see eachother), raters weren’t told which transcripts were which group. Pptts in computer condition showed significantly more self-disclosure than f2f but those who had videos on has lower levels of self disclosure than those without video. Study can be replicated, pptts were almost all in same sex pairs so can’t be generalised to those who aren’t same sex. Raters may have been able to tell difference which may cause bias

Question 37

Self-awareness affecting computer communication

Answer 37

Public and private, aware of how u appear to others and looking inwards, aware of thoughts and feelings and behaviour. Chatting via computer usually involves anonymity and focussing on your thoughts and feelings to express them in writing. Joinson suggested that this is likely to create low public and high private self-awareness, which may explain why this type of communication results in higher self disclosure

Question 38

Gating

Answer 38

A process which limits how much we self disclosure- obstacles known as ‘gates’ which prevent people from sharing information, meaning they cannot develop intimacy and build a relationship. Gates can be appearance, shyness or social skills, apparent when you meet face to face but aren’t obvious in virtual communication. Absence of gating in virtual relations means self-disclosure is higher

Question 39

McKenna et al (2002)- Virtual Relationships

Answer 39

Surveys sent to randomly selected members of online special interest forums, survey asked how people interact offline, whether they shared more with other online and how close the relationships they formed online were. Follow up surveys sent two years later which asked similar questions to see for changes. People who shared aspects online which they didn’t offline reported developing internet relationships quicker than real-life relationships. Over half met the internet friend face to face. After two years 71% of romantic relationships started online remained. McKenna proposed that online relationships have a stable base, they begin based on mutual interests and self-disclosure rather than outward appearances. Absence of gating allows strong relationships to form quickly. High ecological validity

Question 40

Support for Absence of gating

Answer 40

McKenna (2002)- pairs of opposing sex met either online or in person, and then a second time in person. Research showed that after both meetings, people liked each other significantly more if they first met online. For pptts in person, quality of convo and level of intimacy didn’t affect how much they liked each other suggesting liking was based on factors other than what was said e.g. appearance. However liking and convo quality were strongly correlated for pptts who first met online, supporting the idea that absence of gating online contributed to the stability of online relationships

Question 41

What are parasocial relationships

Answer 41

Relationships that audiences develop with celebrities are very different from the relationship formed within normal social networks. They are one-sided with one person knowing lots and the other usually knowing nothing. As well as audiences developing relations with celebs, many people are attracted to the concept of celebrity and want to be one themselves

Question 42

Three Levels of Parasocial Relationships

Answer 42

Entertainment-Social: where the relationship with the celebrity exists as a source of fun, shared with others in a social group
Intense-Personal: obsessive thoughts begin to arise in relation to the celebrity (e.g. they are my soulmate)
Borderline-Pathological: obsessive thoughts begin to give rise to fully fledged fantasies (e.g. they are my partner) and behaviours (e.g. sending love letters). It is at this stage that stalking may begin, which involves a level of pursuit that is intimidating

Question 43

Attachment Theory for Parasocial Relationships

Answer 43

Bowlby suggested that people form close attachments with their caregivers. These bonds influence how they attach and relate to other people in adulthood. In terms of celebrities, theory suggests that children who didn’t form close attachments with caregivers may later develop insecure attachments as adults which makes them more likely to be attracted to celebrities. In one sided relationships there is little opportunity for rejection

Question 44

For and Against attachment theory with Parasocial relationships

Answer 44

For: Robert’s (2007) study supports the link as he replicated McCutcheon’s study for the parasocial levels and found a positive correlation between I securely attached individuals and frequently contacting celebrities
Against: McCutcheon (2006) asked over 250 uni students to complete questionnaires which examined their personality types and their views on celebrities and found no correlation between insecure attachment and forming parasocial relationships

Question 45

Absorption Addiction Model

Answer 45

People form parasocial relations when they have a weak sense of identity and an individual finds their own life deficient so they follow a celebrity as a source of fulfilment. Closely linked with levels of parasocial relations, first level is absorption and if it becomes addictive they may move onto the second stage.
Absorption: individual becomes absorbed in following a celebrity (relationship is a form of escapism)
Addiction: individual becomes more and more obsessed with the celebrity which can lead to extreme behaviour like stalking, usually happens from poor mental health or some sort of crisis

Question 46

Strengths of the Parasocial Models

Answer 46

Maltby (2001) found a connection between parasocial relations and mental health. Pptts who engaged in parasocial relations were found to be functioning less well psychologically than those who didn’t. Also found a positive correlation between levels of anxiety and depression and frequency of more extreme parasocial relations which matches the models predictions.
The model explains why most people do form relations even at entertainment level and why only a small minority develop further levels.

Question 47

Weaknesses of the Parasocial Models

Answer 47

This model has been criticised for ignoring the positive aspects of being fan (like being in a social group) and for stigmatising people who form parasocial relations by linking their behaviour to poor mental health. The studies which support the absorption addiction model don’t show that poor psychological functioning causes it but just that the two correlate. Studies supporting this model have tended to be done in western countries, making it ethnocentric and not generalised to other cultures