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A-Level Psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Origins of Psychology

A

In 1873 Wilhelm Wundt published the first book on psychology ‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’ to establish the subject as an independent branch of science. In 1879 opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig- the Institute of Experimental Psychology

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2
Q

Behavioural approach (5 things)

A

Watson and Rayner (1920)- Little Albert learned fear.
When born our mind is a blank slate
Behaviour is a result of stimulus
All behaviour is learnt from the environment
Little difference between learning in humans and in other animals

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3
Q

Stimulus

A

Anything, internal or external, that brings about a response

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4
Q

Response

A

Any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

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5
Q

Reinforcement

A

The process by which a response is strengthened. Positive and negative reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to happen again in the future

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6
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Skinner (1938) rats showed operant conditioning, learning through consequence. Applied for treatment of behaviour.
Positive: increase likelihood of response since it involves a reward for the behaviour
Negative: increases likelihood of response since it involves the removal of unpleasant consequences

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7
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Pavlov’s dogs. Involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus. This is learning by association and refers to the conditioning of reflexes and involves associating a new stimulus with an innate bodily reflex.

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8
Q

Punishment

A

The consequence is receiving something unpleasant which decreases the probability of the behaviour being repeated

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9
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Bandura (Bobo doll)-learning occurs from observing others (models).

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10
Q

Four conditions for social learning/ Mediational Processes

A

Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention- remembrance of observation
Motor reproduction- replicate behaviour shown by model
Motivation- seek to demonstrate behaviour observed

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11
Q

Types of Models

A

Live models- physically present in our environment
Symbolic models- people in films, books, cartoons
Symbolic Modelling is considered to have a greater effect on cultures where media is widely available

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12
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

Seeing others being rewarded for a behaviour influences someone in whether they choose to imitate the behaviour

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13
Q

Akers(1998)

A

Suggested that the probability of someone engaging in criminal activity increases when they are exposed to models who commit crime and identify with them and develop the expectation of positive consequence of criminal behaviour

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14
Q

Reductionist approach

A

Very basic cause and effect mechanisms
Behaviour is a result of learning
Ignored biological explanations

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15
Q

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

A

Our mental systems have limited capacity- amount of info processed depends on how demanding a task is.
Control mechanisms oversees all mental processes- require more processing power for new tasks, less for other things
There is a two way flow of information- take in info from the world, process it, react to it, use own knowledge and understanding for our own perception of the world

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16
Q

Schema

A

A ‘package’ of information and ideas developed through experience. Helps you to organise and interpret information and experiences. It can affect behaviour. You need to get new information into your schema in order to improve it.

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17
Q

Role schemas

A

These are ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation

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18
Q

Event schemas

A

These contain information about what happens in a situation. Also called scripts

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19
Q

Self-schemas

A

Contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality, as well as beliefs and values. These can affect how you act

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20
Q

Problem of schemas

A

Can stop people from learning new information
- prejudice and stereotypes can be an outcome of schemas
- schema which hold expectations or beliefs about a certain subgroup of people may bias the way we process incoming information.
Can lead to perception errors and unhelpful behaviour

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21
Q

Methods involved in brain scanning

A

Lesion studies- see if brain damage changes behaviour
Electrophysiology- using electric and magnetic fields to measure brain activity and brain waves
Neuroimaging- pinpointing areas of the brain which are active when a task is performed

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22
Q

Assumptions of the Biological Approach

A

Everything psychological is at first biological
Biological structures and processes within body impacts behaviour
Physiological cause may be genetically/environmentally altered
The mind lives in the brain

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23
Q

Monozygotic

A

One zygote, these twins are formed when a fertilised cell splits into two and forms two separate embryos

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24
Q

Dizygotic

A

Two zygotes, these twins are formed when two separate eggs both become fertilised by different sperm cells

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25
Q

Concordance rates

A

The extent to which a pair of twins share similar traits or characteristics

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26
Q

Genotype and Phenotype

A

Genotype- actual genes which determine potential for characteristics
Phenotype- observable characteristics of an individual

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27
Q

5 Brain Scans

A

PET Scans- active patterns during tasks
CAT Scans- detects damage
MRI- detects small tumours
fMRI- structural and functional info
SQUID- produce accurate images of brain activity

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28
Q

Strengths of the biological approach

A

It is a scientific approach, biology on behaviour can lead to treatment like antidepressants, measurements can be performed by machines which have no vested interest in the outcome so they can be objective

29
Q

Limitations of biological approach

A

Deterministic approach- determined by our genes. Reductionist by saying all human behaviour is explained through biological processes. Ignores role of environment. Small or restricted samples make findings difficult to generalise. Cannot separate nature and nurture

30
Q

Cognitive Approach

A

How our mental processes affect our behaviour

31
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach

A

A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience

32
Q

Assumptions of psychodynamic approach

A

The unconscious forces in our mind determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Behaviour as adults is strongly influenced by our childhood experiences. Abnormal behaviour is a result of mental conflict.

33
Q

Freud’s structure of personality

A

Tripartite model of the mind. We all have three characteristics in our mind at the same time. The ID, the Ego and the Superego

34
Q

Character A the ID

A

The ‘it’. Primitive part of our personality. Operates on pleasure principle, ID is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts. Only the ID is present at birth. Fully unconscious

35
Q

Character B the Ego

A

The ‘I’. Develops around age 2. Works on reality principle, mediator between ID and SuperEgo. Makes the person aware of others feelings and how they can’t always have their own way. It’s role is to reduce conflict between demands of ID and SuperEgo. Employs defence mechanisms

36
Q

Character C the SuperEgo

A

The ‘other I’. Formed around age 5. Internalised sense of right and wrong. Moral standards of the child’s same-sex parents (a representative). Punishes the Ego for wrongdoing through guilt

37
Q

What happens if the ID, Ego and SuperEgo don’t work together

A

Ego too weak – allows id and superego to dominate
Id too strong – selfish, out of control, could become
psychopathic
Superego too strong – strict, anxious, obsessive – depression, anxiety, OCD

38
Q

Different psyche

A

Healthy- Ego maintains balance
Neurotic- SuperEgo in charge
Psychotic and Psychopathic- ID is in control

39
Q

Psychosexual stages

A

Freud believed that children are born with a libido- a sexual urge. There are a number of stages of childhood where the child seeks pleasures from different objects. To be psychologically healthy we must successfully complete each stage

40
Q

The oral stage with a consequence of failure

A

From birth. Mouth is the main focus of pleasure. Child enjoys tasting and sucking. The mother’s breast is the object of desire. Successful completion is shown by eating independently.
Consequence: sarcastic, sensitive to rejection, overeats, bites nails

41
Q

The anal stage with consequence of failure

A

18months to 3 years old. Defecation is the main source of pleasure. Successful completion marked by potty training.
Consequence: Anally retentive- tidy, stubborn, likes order, perfectionist, obsessive. Anally expulsive- thoughtless, messy

42
Q

The Phallic Stage with consequence of failure

A

3-5 years. Form of pleasure is the genital area.
Oedipus complex- boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object’ and wants his father out of the way.
Electra complex- Girls experience penis envy; they desire their father, as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother
Consequence: narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

43
Q

The Latency Stage with consequence of failure

A

5-puberty. Earlier conflicts are repressed. Sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies. Focus on developing same sex friendships. No particular requirements for successful completion.

44
Q

The Genital stage with consequence of failure

A

Puberty into adulthood. Focus on genitals but not to the same extent as phallic stage. Task is to develop healthy adult relationships, should happen if all earlier stages have been completed successfully.
Consequence: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

45
Q

Defence Mechanisms

A

Denial- completely reject the thought or feeling and refuse to acknowledge some aspect of reality, blocked from conscious mind
Repression- forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. Ego stops unwanted and painful thoughts from becoming conscious
Displacement- Transfer feelings from true sources of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

46
Q

Freudian slips

A

An error in speech, memory, or physical action that occurs due to the interference of an unconscious wish or internal train of thought. Proof of the unconscious mind

47
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Range of techniques used to access the unconscious
-dream analysis and hypnosis

48
Q

Assumptions of the Humanistic Approach

A

Every individual is unique, Free will, People should be viewed holistically, Scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour

49
Q

Self-actualisation

A

Everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential. The achievement of that full potential is called self actualisation

50
Q

Maslow’s theory and hierarchy of needs

A

Human needs are categorised and prioritised.
Top: Self-Actualisation- morality, problem solving, creativity
Esteem- confidence, achievement, respect of others
Love- friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety- health, property, body, employment, resources
Physiological- breathing, food, water, sleep

51
Q

Characteristics of self-actualised people

A

Strong sense of self-awareness. Fully accepting view of oneself. Ability to deal with uncertainty and unknown. Strong sense of creativity

52
Q

Flow theory

A

Being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz.

53
Q

The self-concept

A

The self you feel you are. Similar to self-esteem and is affected by it. If someone has a low self-esteem, their self concept will be poor and they will have a distorted view of how capable they are

54
Q

The ideal self

A

The self you wish to be. Who you are achieving towards becoming. It is not who you think you are which is why it differs to the self-concept

55
Q

The real self

A

The person you actually are, not who you think or wish you were.

56
Q

Achieving congruence

A

You need an ‘unconditional positive regard’. This means that at some point in life someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else. Essential to reach full potential

57
Q

Conditions of worth

A

Requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved, can either be real or perceived by the individual.

58
Q

Client centred therapy

A

Clients not patients, form of psychotherapy. Supportive and non-judgemental. Therapists provides genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard

59
Q

What is reductionism

A

The idea that things can be explained by reducing them to simple cause-and-effect processes

60
Q

What is introspection

A

A way to study sensation and perception by getting someone to analyse their own thoughts and feelings

61
Q

What is the role of defence mechanisms

A

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to reduce anxiety caused by the id and superego being in conflict

62
Q

Evaluate Maslow’s hierarchy

A

Good because it focuses on how human strive to reach their full potential. Additionally, Aronoff (1967) found evidence to support the idea that people cannot reach the higher levels of the hierarchy until they have satisfied the lower ones. However, striving for individual goals is a western concept so is culturally biased and cannot be presented as something all humans are motivated by

63
Q

One strength and one weakness of the cognitive approach

A

One strength is that the importance of mental processes (which are often overlooked in other approaches) is considered.
One weakness is that it fails to take individual differences into account

64
Q

Evaluate the biological approach

A

Very scientific, the research is objective and can be controlled and replicated. If a biological cause can be found for mental health problems, biological treatments can be made. But, it doesn’t include people’s environment, family, childhood or social situation

65
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Approach

A

Offers methods of therapy to allow patients to understand the causes of their problems and resolve any internal conflicts and anxieties. But, based on Freud’s interpretations of his patient’s dreams. These are subjective which makes them unreliable and open to bias. Approach also focuses on a patients past rather than the current suffering

66
Q

Strength and weakness of the Humanistic Approach

A

Treats people as individuals, the whole person is studied rather than trying to reduce the person and their behaviour to simpler processes. But it’s largely based on feelings and subjective reports. These are difficult to measure in a scientific way causing a lack of evidence to support its claims

67
Q

Is psychology a science

A

Psychology has the same aims as science to predict, understand and control. Behaviourist, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific procedures to investigate theories. However there are other approaches which don’t use objective methods to study behaviour, use unreliable methods. Also it’s very hard to get a representative sample of the population for a study so findings can’t be generalised

68
Q

Ecological validity

A

The measure of how much the result of an experiment reflects what would happen in natural settings

69
Q

Theoretical and computer modelling

A

Computer- treat the brain as a computer processor and uses data input as sensory info from the world and an output as the action in response
Theoretical- simplified representation of a mental process, because they cannot be directly observed

A-Level Psychology (8 decks)

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