Approaches Flashcards
Origins of Psychology
In 1873 Wilhelm Wundt published the first book on psychology ‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’ to establish the subject as an independent branch of science. In 1879 opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig- the Institute of Experimental Psychology
Behavioural approach (5 things)
Watson and Rayner (1920)- Little Albert learned fear.
When born our mind is a blank slate
Behaviour is a result of stimulus
All behaviour is learnt from the environment
Little difference between learning in humans and in other animals
Stimulus
Anything, internal or external, that brings about a response
Response
Any reaction in the presence of the stimulus
Reinforcement
The process by which a response is strengthened. Positive and negative reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to happen again in the future
Operant conditioning
Skinner (1938) rats showed operant conditioning, learning through consequence. Applied for treatment of behaviour.
Positive: increase likelihood of response since it involves a reward for the behaviour
Negative: increases likelihood of response since it involves the removal of unpleasant consequences
Classical conditioning
Pavlov’s dogs. Involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus. This is learning by association and refers to the conditioning of reflexes and involves associating a new stimulus with an innate bodily reflex.
Punishment
The consequence is receiving something unpleasant which decreases the probability of the behaviour being repeated
Social Learning Theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Bandura (Bobo doll)-learning occurs from observing others (models).
Four conditions for social learning/ Mediational Processes
Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention- remembrance of observation
Motor reproduction- replicate behaviour shown by model
Motivation- seek to demonstrate behaviour observed
Types of Models
Live models- physically present in our environment
Symbolic models- people in films, books, cartoons
Symbolic Modelling is considered to have a greater effect on cultures where media is widely available
Vicarious reinforcement
Seeing others being rewarded for a behaviour influences someone in whether they choose to imitate the behaviour
Reductionist
Explaining tings through very basic cause and effect mechanisms
Assumptions of the cognitive approach
Our mental systems have limited capacity- amount of info processed depends on how demanding a task is.
Control mechanisms oversees all mental processes- require more processing power for new tasks, less for other things
There is a two way flow of information- take in info from the world, process it, react to it, use own knowledge and understanding for our own perception of the world
Schema
A ‘package’ of information and ideas developed through experience. Helps you to organise and interpret information and experiences. It can affect behaviour. You need to get new information into your schema in order to improve it.
Role schemas
These are ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation
Event schemas
These contain information about what happens in a situation. Also called scripts
Self-schemas
Contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality, as well as beliefs and values. These can affect how you act
Problem of schemas
Can stop people from learning new information
- prejudice and stereotypes can be an outcome of schemas
- schema which hold expectations or beliefs about a certain subgroup of people may bias the way we process incoming information.
Can lead to perception errors and unhelpful behaviour
Methods involved in brain scanning
Lesion studies- see if brain damage changes behaviour
Electrophysiology- using electric and magnetic fields to measure brain activity and brain waves
Neuroimaging- pinpointing areas of the brain which are active when a task is performed
Assumptions of the Biological Approach
Everything psychological is at first biological
Biological structures and processes within body impacts behaviour
Physiological cause may be genetically/environmentally altered
The mind lives in the brain
Monozygotic
One zygote, these twins are formed when a fertilised cell splits into two and forms two separate embryos
Dizygotic
Two zygotes, these twins are formed when two separate eggs both become fertilised by different sperm cells
Concordance rates
The extent to which a pair of twins share similar traits or characteristics
Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype- actual genes which determine potential for characteristics
Phenotype- observable characteristics of an individual
5 Brain Scans
PET Scans- active patterns during tasks
CAT Scans- detects damage
MRI- detects small tumours
fMRI- structural and functional info
SQUID- produce accurate images of brain activity
Strengths of the biological approach
It is a scientific approach, biology on behaviour can lead to treatment like antidepressants, measurements can be performed by machines which have no vested interest in the outcome so they can be objective
Limitations of biological approach
Deterministic approach- determined by our genes. Reductionist by saying all human behaviour is explained through biological processes. Ignores role of environment. Small or restricted samples make findings difficult to generalise. Cannot separate nature and nurture, it doesn’t include people’s environment, family, childhood or social situation
Cognitive Approach
How our mental processes affect our behaviour
The Psychodynamic Approach
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
Assumptions of psychodynamic approach
The unconscious forces in our mind determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Behaviour as adults is strongly influenced by our childhood experiences. Abnormal behaviour is a result of mental conflict.
Freud’s structure of personality
Tripartite model of the mind. We all have three characteristics in our mind at the same time. The ID, the Ego and the Superego
Character A the ID
The ‘it’. Primitive part of our personality. Operates on pleasure principle, ID is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts. Only the ID is present at birth. Fully unconscious
Character B the Ego
The ‘I’. Develops around age 2. Works on reality principle, mediator between ID and SuperEgo. Makes the person aware of others feelings and how they can’t always have their own way. It’s role is to reduce conflict between demands of ID and SuperEgo. Employs defence mechanisms
Character C the SuperEgo
The ‘other I’. Formed around age 5. Internalised sense of right and wrong. Moral standards of the child’s same-sex parents (a representative). Punishes the Ego for wrongdoing through guilt
What happens if the ID, Ego and SuperEgo don’t work together
Ego too weak – allows id and superego to dominate
Id too strong – selfish, out of control, could become psychopathic
Superego too strong – strict, anxious, obsessive – depression, anxiety, OCD
Different psyche
Healthy- Ego maintains balance
Neurotic- SuperEgo in charge
Psychotic and Psychopathic- ID is in control
Psychosexual stages
Freud believed that children are born with a libido- a sexual urge. There are a number of stages of childhood where the child seeks pleasures from different objects. To be psychologically healthy we must successfully complete each stage
The oral stage with a consequence of failure
From birth. Mouth is the main focus of pleasure. Child enjoys tasting and sucking. The mother’s breast is the object of desire. Successful completion is shown by eating independently.
Consequence: sarcastic, sensitive to rejection, overeats, bites nails
The anal stage with consequence of failure
18months to 3 years old. Defecation is the main source of pleasure. Successful completion marked by potty training.
Consequence: Anally retentive- tidy, stubborn, likes order, perfectionist, obsessive. Anally expulsive- thoughtless, messy
The Phallic Stage with consequence of failure
3-5 years. Form of pleasure is the genital area.
Oedipus complex- boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object’ and wants his father out of the way.
Electra complex- Girls experience penis envy; they desire their father, as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother
Consequence: narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
The Latency Stage with consequence of failure
5-puberty. Earlier conflicts are repressed. Sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies. Focus on developing same sex friendships. No particular requirements for successful completion.
The Genital stage with consequence of failure
Puberty into adulthood. Focus on genitals but not to the same extent as phallic stage. Task is to develop healthy adult relationships, should happen if all earlier stages have been completed successfully.
Consequence: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Defence Mechanisms
Denial- completely reject the thought or feeling and refuse to acknowledge some aspect of reality, blocked from conscious mind
Repression- forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. Ego stops unwanted and painful thoughts from becoming conscious
Displacement- Transfer feelings from true sources of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
Freudian slips
An error in speech, memory, or physical action that occurs due to the interference of an unconscious wish or internal train of thought. Proof of the unconscious mind
Psychoanalysis
Range of techniques used to access the unconscious
-dream analysis and hypnosis
Assumptions of the Humanistic Approach
Every individual is unique, Free will, People should be viewed holistically, Scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour
Self-actualisation
Everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential. The achievement of that full potential is called self actualisation
Maslow’s theory and hierarchy of needs
Human needs are categorised and prioritised.
Top: Self-Actualisation- morality, problem solving, creativity
Esteem- confidence, achievement, respect of others
Love- friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety- health, property, body, employment, resources
Physiological- breathing, food, water, sleep
Characteristics of self-actualised people
Strong sense of self-awareness. Fully accepting view of oneself. Ability to deal with uncertainty and unknown. Strong sense of creativity
Flow theory
Being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz.
The self-concept
The self you feel you are. Similar to self-esteem and is affected by it. If someone has a low self-esteem, their self concept will be poor and they will have a distorted view of how capable they are
The ideal self
The self you wish to be. Who you are achieving towards becoming. It is not who you think you are which is why it differs to the self-concept
The real self
The person you actually are, not who you think or wish you were.
Achieving congruence
You need an ‘unconditional positive regard’. This means that at some point in life someone has to be loved for who they are no matter what they’re behaviour is like. Essential to reach full potential
Conditions of worth
Requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved, can either be real or perceived by the individual.
Client centred therapy
Clients not patients, form of psychotherapy. Supportive and non-judgemental. Therapists provides genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
What is introspection
A way to study sensation and perception by getting someone to analyse their own thoughts and feelings. Relies primarily on non-observable responses and was subjective making it difficult to establish general laws
What is the role of defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to reduce anxiety caused by the id and superego being in conflict
Evaluate Maslow’s hierarchy
Good because it focuses on how human strive to reach their full potential. Additionally, Aronoff (1967) found evidence to support the idea that people cannot reach the higher levels of the hierarchy until they have satisfied the lower ones. However, striving for individual goals is a western concept so is culturally biased and cannot be presented as something all humans are motivated by
One strength and one weakness of the cognitive approach
One strength is that the importance of mental processes (which are often overlooked in other approaches) is considered.
One weakness is that it fails to take individual differences into account
Strengths and weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Approach
Offers methods of therapy to allow patients to understand the causes of their problems and resolve any internal conflicts and anxieties. But, based on Freud’s interpretations of his patient’s dreams. These are subjective which makes them unreliable and open to bias. Approach also focuses on a patients past rather than the current suffering
Strength and weakness of the Humanistic Approach
Treats people as individuals, the whole person is studied rather than trying to reduce the person and their behaviour to simpler processes. But it’s largely based on feelings and subjective reports. These are difficult to measure in a scientific way causing a lack of evidence to support its claims
Is psychology a science
Psychology has the same aims as science to desrcibe, explain, predict and change. Behaviourist, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific procedures to investigate theories. However there are other approaches which don’t use objective methods to study behaviour, use unreliable methods. Also it’s very hard to get a representative sample of the population for a study so findings can’t be generalised
Ecological validity
The measure of how much the result of an experiment reflects what would happen in natural settings
Theoretical and computer modelling
Computer- treat the brain as a computer processor and uses data input as sensory info from the world and an output as the action in response
Theoretical- simplified representation of a mental process, because they cannot be directly observed
Bartlett (1932)- The War of the Ghosts
English pptts asked to read a native american folk tale, it was an unfamiliar story, full of strange and unusual names, ideas and objects and differing from the structure of the average English story. Pptts asked to recall story after lengths of time, all pptts changed story to fit their own schemas and details contained more elements of English culture, supports schemas. Laboratory study, lacks ecological validity, paved the way for more cognitive research
What makes something a science
Objectivity- scientific observations without bias
Control- under controlled conditions
Predictability- results predict future behaviour
Hypothesis testing
Replication
Structuralism
A theory of consciousness that seeks to analyse the elements of mental experiences such as sensations, mental images, and feelings, and how these elements combine to form more complex experiences, uses introspection
Bandura (bobo doll)
Matched pairs design on aggression levels at school. 36 boys and 36 girls around 5 years old. One condition children observed an aggressive model playing with doll, one with a non-aggressive model ignoring the doll and a control group with no model. Children then observed in a room with different toys. Aggressive model created aggressive children, other two low aggression with control group slightly higher. control, reliable, replication. Small sample, low ecological validity, can be unethical as encourages aggression in children
