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A-Level Psychology > Biopsychy > Flashcards

Biopsychy Flashcards

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1
Q

The central nervous system (CNS)

A

Made up of the brain and spinal chord. The brain controls how we think, learn, move, and feel. The spinal cord carries messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run throughout the body.

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2
Q

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

Made up of the neurones that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. It also has systems: the ANS, SNS

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3
Q

The semantic nervous system

A

Controls conscious activities

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4
Q

The automatic nervous system (ANS)

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Controls unconscious activities like digestion and has two divisions that have opposing effects on the body

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5
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Gets the body ready for action. It’s the ‘fight or flight’ system

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6
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Calms the body down. It’s the ‘rest and digest’ system

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7
Q

Sensory neurones

A

The nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses from receptors to the CNS

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8
Q

Relay neurones

A

The nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses between sensory neurones and motor neurones

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9
Q

Motor neurones

A

The nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses from the CNS to effectors

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10
Q

How neurones transmit information around the body

A

The cell body has dendrites that receive info from other neurones. This info passes along the axon in a form of electrical impulses which end up at the synaptic knob. The myelin sheath insulates the axon to speed up transmission. Neurotransmitters are released from the synaptic knob across the synapse to pass onto new dendrites

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11
Q

Transmission of info to and from CNS

A

Stimulus → receptors → CNS → effectors → response

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12
Q

Reflexes

A

Fast, automatic responses to certain stimuli. Bypass conscious brain and are rapid to help avoid danger

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13
Q

Synapses

A

The presynaptic neurone contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. When an electrical impulse reaches the end of a neurone it causes the neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic cleft (the gap between neurones). They diffuse across to the postsynaptic membrane and bind to specific receptors. This may trigger a muscle contraction or cause a hormone to be secreted. Neurotransmitters are removed from the cleft so the response doesn’t keep happening (reuptake)

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14
Q

Two types of neurotransmitters

A

Excitatory- increase the likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in the postsynaptic neurone
Inhibitory- decrease the likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in the postsynaptic neurone

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15
Q

5 main neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Noradrenaline, Serotonin, GABA

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16
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Voluntary movement, memory, learning and sleep. Too much is linked to depression and too little to dementia

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17
Q

Dopamine

A

Helps with movement, attention and learning. Too much is linked to schizophrenia, and too little to depression

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18
Q

Noradrenaline

A

Closest related to adrenaline and often associated with ‘fight or flight’ response. Too much is linked to schizophrenia and too little to depression

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19
Q

Serotonin

A

Involved in emotion, mood, sleeping and eating. Too little is linked to depression

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20
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter. Too little is linked to anxiety disorders

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21
Q

Glands and Hormones

A

A gland is a group of cells that are specialised to secrete a useful substance, such as a hormone. Hormones are ‘chemical messengers’. Many are proteins or peptides

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22
Q

The endocrine system

A

A gland is stimulated by a change in concentration of a specific substance or by electrical impulses. This secretes a hormone which diffuses directly into the blood and is taken around the body. They diffuse out of the blood all over the body, but each hormone will only bind to specific receptors found on the membrane of target cells. This triggers a response

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23
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Produces hormones that control the pituitary gland

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24
Q

Pituitary gland

A

The ‘master gland’ as it releases hormones to control other glands in the endocrine system

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25
Q

Pineal gland

A

Produces melatonin, which helps control of sleep patterns

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26
Q

Thyroid gland

A

Produces thyroxine and is responsible for controlling the body’s metabolic rate, as well as regulating growth and maturation

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27
Q

Parathyroid glands

A

Produces parathyroid hormone, helps control the levels of minerals such as calcium within the body

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28
Q

Thymus gland

A

Regulates the immune system

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29
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Produce hormones such as adrenaline. Responsible for the ‘fight or flight’. Also produces cortisol which causes us to wake up from sleep

30
Q

Pancreas

A

Release insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar level

31
Q

Gonads

A

Ovaries and testes which produce the sex hormones

32
Q

Differences between endocrine and nervous system

A

Endocrine system is slower, longer lasting, and more wide-spread as they are sent all over the body

33
Q

How the ‘fight or flight’ activates

A

In the initial shock response, the hypothalamus triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of the ANS. This stimulates the adrenal medulla which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline. This prepares the body to use energy to deal with the situation

34
Q

The affects of adrenaline and noradrenaline

A

Blood pressure and heart rate increase, digestion decreases, muscles become more tense, perspiration increases, breathing rate increases, pupil size increases, salivation decreases

35
Q

Localisation of Function

A

Certain areas of the brain are thought to be responsible for particular functions e.g. vision, language

36
Q

Motor cortex

A

Controls voluntary movement. Frontal lobe

37
Q

Broca’s area

A

Responsible for the production of speech

38
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

Processes information about touch, pain, temperature and proprioception (the position of your body). Parietal lobe

39
Q

Visual cortex

A

Processes information from our eyes, Occipitual lobe

40
Q

Auditory cortex

A

Processes information from our ears. Temporal lobe

41
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Responsible for the understanding of language

42
Q

Two hemispheres

A

Connected by the corpus callosum. In most, Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are only found in the left so it handles the bulk of language functions. Left is responsible for logic, analysis, problem solving. The right involves spatial comprehension, emotions and face recognition

43
Q

Sperry (1968)- Effects of split brain surgery

A

Involves case studies and experiments. 11 pptts underwent split brain surgery. A control group was used who had no hemisphere disconnection. Pptts covered one eye and looked at a fixed point on a projection screen. Pictures were shown onto the right or left of the screen at high speeds. If the picture was shown in the right visual field, all pptts could say or write what it was but if it was the left the split brain pptts couldn’t say or write what they saw but they could select a corresponding object with their left hand. Proves that different areas of the brain have different functions. Sperry obtained both qualitative and quantitative data. Small sample size, artificial experiment

44
Q

Plasticity

A

The brains ability to alter its structure and function in response to changes in the environment. This constant reworking and reorganisation of the brain is the basis of how we learn and adapt.

45
Q

How plasticity works

A

Information takes a pathway through the brain, travelling from one neurone to the next. When we are represented with new information, new neural pathways begin to form. Using a neural pathway strengthens it and not using it weakens it, like learning how to drive, the more you drive the better you get

46
Q

Elbert et al (1995)

A

Nine musicians were compared to six non-musicians. Magnetic source imaging was used to measure the area of the somatosensory cortex representing the left hand of each pptts. The area of the cortex was larger in the musicians. Show that increased amount of sensory processing required from left hands of musicians results in structural changes in the brain, providing support for plasticity. Small sample size, can be argued that musicians are genetically good/ talented

47
Q

Cortical representation

A

Different areas in the somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex of the brain represent different parts of the body. For example one part of the somatosensory cortex processes sensory info from your lips and another part from your toes

48
Q

How can plasticity help in brain damage

A

The brain has potential to recover some of its lost functions from brain damage because the brain begins to rewire itself through plasticity. There is evidence that healthy areas of the brain located near the damaged area begin to take over the function of the damaged area

49
Q

Adv and Dis of constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT)

A

Produces cortical reorganisation which results in regained or improved function. Principles can be applied to patients who suffer from aphasia. Studies have shown this therapy caused dysfunction areas near the damaged area to become functional again.
CIMT can be very frustrating for the patient. Needs to be intensive to be effective. Patients are often required to train the affected limb for several hours a day for weeks and have their unaffected limb restrained. It’s most effective for those who have suffered mild to moderate strokes and may not work with larger damage to the brain

50
Q

Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans

A

3D scans providing structural and functional information. They show changes in brain activity as they actually happen. More oxygenated blood flows to active areas of the brain to supply neurones with oxygen and glucose. Molecules in oxygenated blood respond differently to a magnetic field than those in deoxygenated blood so the more active areas can be identified

51
Q

Uses of fMRI scans

A

Used to research the function of the brain as well as its structure. If a participant carries out a task whilst in the scanner, the part of the brain that’s involved with that function will be more active. Can be used to diagnose medical problems since they can also show damaged or diseased areas. They are also used to study abnormal activity in the brain like during hallucinations for patients with schizophrenia

52
Q

Pros and Cons of fMRI

A

Really useful tool for bio psychologists as they provide a non-invasive way of studying the brain. However the machines are very expensive to buy and run. They also require people to lie very still in an enclosed space for a period of time, which can be a problem for claustrophobic patients. They have poor temporal resolution- don’t show changes over time accurately

53
Q

EEGs

A

An electroencephalogram (EEG) shows the overall electrical activity of the brain. It picks up the signal of many neurones firing together, not individual neurones. Multiple electrodes are placed on the scalp and the electrical activity in the brain is recorded for a period of time. This produces a pattern of waves which represent different levels of arousal or consciousness. For example the stages of sleep each have their own typical waves patterns

54
Q

Uses of EEGs

A

Commonly used in sleep studies, have been used in studies of depression and schizophrenia ( meta analysis showed that participants with schizophrenia had abnormal EEG wave patterns). Abnormal EEGs have all been identified in patients with eating disorders like anorexia nervosa. This means EEGs have the potential to be used as a diagnostic tool.

55
Q

ERPs

A

Bio psychologists can also look at how an EEG wave pattern changes in response to a stimulus. This change is known as an event-related potential (ERP). If a specific stimulus is presented, it produces a specific change in the wave pattern. Different ERPs have been identified as a response to different stimuli

56
Q

Uses of ERPs

A

Have been used a lot in memory research, as they give bio psychologists lots of clues about information processing in the brain. Research has shown differences in the ERPs of people suffering from certain psychiatric disorders compared to healthy individuals. For example, Miltner (2000) found that people with phobias had an ERP of a greater amplitude in response to images of objects they feared, compared to non-phobic individuals

57
Q

Post-mortem examinations with uses

A

Involve dissecting the brain of a person who has died. This allows researchers to physically look at the internal structure of the brain. If a person had a medical condition when they were alive, a post-mortem could show off any structural abnormalities that could explain their condition. They have provided evidence for localisation of function in the brain- Paul Broca found that two patients with speech problems both have damage to the same areas of the brain (now Broca’s area) suggesting that it was involved in speech production

58
Q

Pros and Cons of EEGs and ERPs

A

Both also non-invasive, and they are cheaper to carry out than fMRI scans. Although they have good temporal resolution, they have poor spatial resolution- it’s hard to work out which area of the brain the waves originate from

59
Q

Pros and Cons of Post-mortem examinations

A

An obvious disadvantage is that the person has to have died before the examination can be carried out so they will not benefit from any findings. It doesn’t allow a cause and effect to be established (goes for fMRI, EEGs and ERPs as well).

60
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

Have cycles that generally occur once every 24hours. For example we will usually go through sleep-wake cycle once a day

61
Q

Infradian rhythms

A

Have cycles that occur less than once every day. For example the menstrual cycle

62
Q

Ultradian cycles

A

Cycles that occur more than once every 24hours.

63
Q

Endogenous pacemakers

A

Some aspects of our biological rhythms are set by genetically determined structures and mechanisms within the body. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) seems to act as an internal clock to maintain sleep cycle.

64
Q

Exogenous zetigebers

A

These are influences outside the body that act like a prompt to trigger a biological rhythm. Light is the most important EZ. Siffre (1975) spent 6 months in a cave with no clocks or natural light and his sleep wake cycle extended from 24hrs to 25-30hrs therefore natural light is needed to fine tune our normal 24-hour cycle

65
Q

Aschoff and Wever (1976)

A

In a group of people isolated from daylight, some maintained their regular sleep cycle while other members displayed their own very extreme sleep cycles such as 29 hours awake followed by 21 hours asleep. This also shows that EP and EZ factors must interact to control or influence biological rhythms

66
Q

Consequences of biological rhythm disruption

A

When EP become out of line with EZ it can disrupt the sleep-wake cycle. In natural environment EZ usually changes slowly however in modern society EZ can change quickly which can have negative effects on our ability to function- slower reactions, impaired problem-solving, limiting our ability to concentrate

67
Q

Czeisler et al (1982) - Shift work

A

Studied workers at a factory whose shift patterns appeared to cause sleep and health problems. The researcher recommended 21-day shifts, to allow more time for workers to adapt, and changing shifts forward in time. After implementing the changes, productivity and job satisfaction increased

68
Q

Limitations of research on biological rhythms

A

Findings from animal studies cannot be generalised to humans. Studies that deprive humans of natural light still allow artificial light which may have given benefits of natural light, reducing validity. Individual differences, some people are more alert at different times in the day and the speed of adaptation varies per person. It’s difficult to say whether a person’s lifestyle is a cause or effect of their biological rhythm

69
Q

Localisation of function areas in the brain

A

Motor cortex- Top middle
Somatosensory cortex- top right middle
Broca’s area- left middle
Auditory cortex- middle middle
Wernicke’s area- middle right
Visual cortex- bottom right

70
Q

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

It is sensitive to light and regulates the pineal gland which secretes melatonin to make us sleepy

A-Level Psychology (8 decks)

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