relationships Flashcards
what is sexual selection
characteristics that are deemed attractive to potential mates
‘selection of the sexiest’
what is anisogamy
differences between males and female sex cells
what are the two types of sexual selections
intra sexual and inter sexual
what is the name of the male gamete
sperm
what is the movement of the male gamete
highly mobile
what is the production of the male gamete
it is unlimited
is the male gamete rare
no
what is the name of the female gamete
ovum
what is the movement of the female gamete
static
what is the production of the female gamete
limited
is the female gamete rare
yes
who prefers inter sexual selection
females
is quality or quantity the focus of the strategy of the female
quality over quantity
who is the consequence more serious for when choosing the wrong choice of partner
the female
what is the female’s optimum mating strategy
selecting a genetically fit partner who is able to and willing to provide resources
what hypothesis did ronald fisher form
the sexy sons hypothesis
what is included in the sexy sons hypothesis
females that find males with desirable characteristics had an increased likelihood in offspring and preference for trait
who prefers intrasexual variation
males
is quality or quantity the focus of the strategy for the male
quantity
what does intrasexual selection refer to
competition between males to be able to mate with a female
what is the male’s optimum reproductive strategy in terms of anisogamy
mating with as many fertile females as possible
why is the male optimum reproductive strategy mating with fertile females
minimal energy is required to produce enough sperm
what is the process of self disclosure
gradual process of revealing inner self to someone else
who conducts the social penetration theory
altman and taylor
what does reciprocal exchange mean
when personal and sensitive information is also revealed by the other partner
what takes place as disclosure increases
romantic partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and gains greater understanding of each other
what are the two elements of self disclosure
breadth and depth
what occurs as breadth and depth increases
romantic partners become more attached to eachother
- increased committment
what are known as the ‘superficial, outer layers of an onion’
low risk information revealed to anyone
what response may be given if too much information is revealed
TMI!
what is breadth
various topics that are discovered
what is depth
intimacy of information that is disclosed
what takes place as a relationship develops
self disclosure becomes deeper and high risk, intimate information is revealed
what does depenetration mean
when dissatisfied partners self disclose less as they gradually disengage from the relationship
what does reis and shaver measure in self disclosure
for relationships to develop, needs to be a reciprocal element to disclose
what is physical attractiveness
how appealing you find a person’s face
what did shackelford and larsen find
they found that people with symmetrical faces are seen as more attractive
why are symmetrical faces viewed as more attractive
a sign of being genetically fit
what are neotenous faces and why are they viewed as more attractive
baby face features like a small nose, large separated eyes and a delicate chin
triggers a protective instinct
what is a phrase that is coined by karen dion
‘what is beautiful is good’
what is the halo effect
the preconceived idea about personality traits that attractive people have is usually positive
what did dion et al find about how attractive people are rated as
they are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful
what is an example of a self fulfilling prophecy in terms of attractiveness
belief that good looking people have positive characteristics, making them more attractive.
results in us behaving more positively towards them
what is a negative result of the halo effect
causes individuals to have a disproportionate influence on judgement of a person’s attributes
who discovered the matching hypothesis
walster and walster
what does the matching hypothesis suggest
we look for partners similar to our attractiveness levels
what study did elaine walster use to test the matching hypothesis
the computer dance
how were the students rated for physical attractiveness in the matching hypothesis
rated 1-10 by objective observers and also completed questionnaires about themselves
what were the findings of the matching hypothesis
most liked partners were most physically attractive, did not support the hypothesis
what happened in the replicated study by berscheid (1971)
participants able to select their partner from varying degrees of attractiveness
- chose partners who matched them
what is the conclusion of the matching hypothesis
tend to seek and choose partners who match our attractiveness levels
- choice of partner is a compromise as we fear the risk of rejection
what did kerckhoff and davis discover
the filter theory to explain formation and developing of romantic relationships
what does the term ‘field of availables’ mean
entire set of potential romantic partners who we can realistically form a relationship with
what does the term ‘field of desirables’ mean
the three main factors that act as filters to narrow down our partner choice
what are the three factors of ‘field of desirables’
-social demography
-similarity in attitudes
-complementarity
what does social demography refer to
the influence of potential partners meeting each other in the first place
where are individuals more likely to meet their potential partners
people physically close to you and sharing several demographic characteristics
what is the key benefit of proximity
accessibility
why is the realistic field more narrower
choices are constrained by social circumstances
what is the outcome of filtering in terms of social demography
homogamy
what does homogamy mean
being more likely to form a relationship with someone socially and culturally similar
what does similarity of attitudes focus on
partners commonly share important beliefs and values e.g. religions, political views
what did kerckhoff and davis state about similarity of attitudes
similarity of attitudes are important to developing romantic relationships
- only for couples together less than 18 months
why is it important for partners to agree over basic values
encourages deeper communication and promotes self disclosure
what did donn bryne find
similarity causes attraction (law of attraction)
what occurs if the partners have little in common
relationship is likely to fizzle out
what does complementarity focus on
the ability of romantic partners to meet each other’s needs
what is an example of a complementary couple
one partner talks a lot while the other partner listens a lot
what did kerckhoff and davis find in terms of complementarity
complementarity is more important in long term couples
why is complementarity deemed as attractive
gives the partners a feeling that together, they form as a whole, adding depth and flourishing the relationship
who proposed the social exchange theory
thibault and kelley
what is the minimax principle
minimises losses and maximising gains in a relationship
what is the main objective of a relationship in the SET
gaining profit from relationship
what does peter blau suggest in terms of relationships
relationships can be expensive so costs include time, stress and energy
what is the comparison level
the amount of rewards that you believe you deserve
when is the comparison level developed
out of our experiences with previous relationships
how does social norms determine what is a reward
books, films, TV programmes
what is known as the comparison level for alternatives
believing what is the best option for greater rewards and fewer costs
what are the 4 stages of relationship development
- sampling stage
- bargaining stage
- commitment stage
- institutionalisation stage
what is the meaning of equity
perceived fairness
what did elaine walster claim about equity theory
both partners’ level of profit is roughly the same
what are the two partners in terms of equity
one partner over benefits and one partner under benefits
how will the over benefitted partner feel
guilty, discomfort
how will the under benefitted partner feel
resentment, humiliation
what are satisfying relationships marked by
negotiations by making trade offs
how will problems arise in terms of equity theory
one partner puts a great deal in the relationship and one gets a little out of it
the greater the perceived inequity….
the greater dissatisfaction
which partner is likely to feel the most dissatisfaction
the under benefitted partner
which partner is likely to make the first move for being equitable
the under benefitted partner
when can partners only make their relationship become more equitable
when it is salvageable
what is the equity theory in terms of cognitive outcomes
what is once seen as a definite cost e.g. abuse is now accepted as the norm
the behaviour does not change
what did resbult develop
the investment model
what three factors does commitment depend on
satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, investment
what are the two types of investment
intrinsic and extrinsic investments
what are intrinsic investments
resources we directly put into the relationship
what are tangible examples of intrinsic investments
money and possessions
what are intangible examples of intrinsic investments
energy, emotions and self disclosure
what are extrinsic investments
resources that previously do not feature in the relationship but are closely associated with
what are tangible examples of extrinsic investments
mutual friends, car, house
what are intangible examples of extrinsic investments
shared memories
what did rusbult suggest about dissatisfied partners staying in a relationship
they are committed to their partner
why are the dissatisfied partners committed to their partner
they made an investment they do not want to waste and therefore, work hard to maintain and repair a damaged relationship
how is commitment expressed in relationships
everyday maintenance behaviours
what are the characteristics of enduring partners
- no engaging in tit rat retaliation
- promote the relationship
- put partner’s interests first
- forgiving them for serious transgressions
what is the cognitive element to relationship maintenance and repair
committed partners think about each other in specific ways
- unrealistically positive about partner
- negative about other people’s relationships
what are the 5 relationship maintenance mechanisms
accommodation
willingness to sacrifice
forgiveness
positive illusions
ridiculing alternatives
what did steve duck propose the idea of
model of relationship breakdowns
- believed that it is a time consuming process and goes through 4 phases
what is a threshold
a point at when the perception of the relationship changes
when does the road to breaking up initially begin
when one of the partners realises that they are dissatisfied in the relationship
what is the first theory in duck’s phase model
intra-psychic phase
what is the threshold that occurs in the intra psychic stage
not wanting to stand this anymore as a reason to change
what is the intra psychic stage focused on
cognitive processes
- their thoughts about the relationship is private
- weigh up the pro and cons and evaluating the relationship for after
- start to make plans for the future
what is the second stage in duck’s phase model
the dyadic phase
what is the focus on the dyadic phase
interpersonal processes between the two partners
- series of confrontations characterised by anxiety and hostility, resentment over imbalanced roles
what are the two possible outcomes in the relationship from the dyadic phase
- continuing to break up the relationship
- desire to repair it
why does self disclosure become deeper in the dyadic phase
becomes more frequent as thoughts and feelings are withheld in the phase
what is the third phase in duck’s phase model
the social phase
wha is the focus of the social stage
wider processes
- partner seek support in mutual friends and family
- gossip traded and encouraged
- expected to choose a side
- some individuals try to help repair relationship if in small groups
what is the fourth phase in duck’s phase model
grave dressing stage
what is the focus of the grave dressing stage
the aftermath of the relationship
- making up two stories: one for the public and one for themselves
- public story: partner maintains a positive reputation in story to maintain social credit
- personal story: tidying up memories of the relationship and reinterpretation of start of relationship in negative aspect
what type of story is made for the relationship breakdown in public consumption
spinning a favourable story to maintain positive reputation and retain social credit
why does gossip play an important role in the grave dressing phase
to retain social credit
what does the personal story involve in grave dressing
tidying up memories of the relationship to reach the threshold of the relationship
what is the idea of virtual relationships
people are present but communicate only using online methods like emails, social media and texting
what can the online methods also be known as
CMC: computer mediated communication
what is a crucial feature of face to face relationships in the offline world
self disclosure
what are the two major theories that operate in virtual relationships
reduced cues theory and the hyper personal model
who formed the reduced cues theory
lee sproull and sara kiesler
what does the reduced cues theory state
virtual relationships are less effective than face to face ones as we lack many cues dependent in face to face interactions
what are examples of nonverbal cues for the reduced cues theory
facial expressions and tone of voice
what is de-individuation in terms of virtual relationships
reducing a person’s sense of individual identity
what does de-individuation lead to in virtual relationships
disinhibition
why does disinhibition occur
people are unlikely to express their real thoughts to someone impersonal
who developed the hyperpersonal model
joseph walther
what does the hyper personal model state
virtual relationships can be more personal and involves greater self disclosure in face to face ones
why did joseph walther state that virtual relationships can be more personal
virtual relationships can develop quickly as self disclosure happens earlier and becomes more intimate
what are the two features of hyperpersonal self disclosure
- selective self presentation as the sender of the message has greater control to disclose and cues sent . presented in ideal ways
- receiver gaining a positive impression of a reader-giving feedbacks reinforcing selective self presentation
how can the idealised ways of selective self presentation be achieved
by being intensely truthful (hyper honesty) or being intensely false (hyper dishonest)
what is the effect of anonymity
a factor that promotes online self disclosure and makes virtual relationships hyperpersonal
what did john bargh find in terms of anonymity
outcome is the strangers on a train effect. feeling less accountable for behaviour and likely to disclose to a stranger more than an intimate partner
what is a gate
an obstacle to forming a relationship
what are examples of gates
stutters, social anxiety, physical unattractiveness
what are the benefits of gating in virtual relationships
is absent as self disclosure can become easily more frequent and deeper- less likely in face to face
what are the benefits of the gates being absent
individual is freed to be like their true selves
what are the drawbacks of the gates being absent
people can form untrue identities and deceive others e.g. any kind of avatar to represent themselves in virtual reality
who developed the celebrity attitude scale
mclutheon
what are the three levels of parasocial relationships
entertainment-social
intense-personal
borderline-pathological
what is the outline of entertainment social relationships
celebrities viewed as sources of entertainment e.g. actors on eastenders
what did david giles state about entertainment social relationships
is a fruitful force of gossip
what is the outline of intense personal relationships
intermediate level where greater personal involvement with celebrity e.g. intense feelings for zendaya
what is the outline of borderline pathological relationships
strongest level of worship involving uncontrollable fantasies e.g. willing to perform an illegal act for the celebrity
what model did mccutcheon develop
the absorption addiction model
what is the outline of absorption in the absorption addiction model
seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship to focus attention and identify with the celebrity
what is the outline of addiction in the absorption addiction model
individual needs to increase dose to gain satisfaction and leads to delusional thinking
what concept is absorption in the model
cognitive
what concept is addiction in the model
behavioural
what type of attachment is likely to form in parasocial relationships
insecure resistant as they seek to meet unfulfilled needs
what are the impact of insecure avoidant attachment in parasocial relationships
avoids pain and rejection of relationships whether social or parasocial
