relationships

Question 1

Cross-sectional design

Answer 1

Comparing two or more groups on a particular variable at a specific time. The opposite is a longitudinal design where the researcher measures a change in an individual over time.

Question 2

Double-blind testing

Answer 2

an experimental procedure in which neither the researcher doing the study nor the participants know the specific type of treatment each participant receives until after the experiment is over; a double-blind procedure is used to guard against both experimenter bias and placebo effects.

Question 3

Longitudinal study

Answer 3

research over a period of time using observations, interviews, or psychometric testing. (Similar to a repeated measures design in an experiment).

Question 4

Meta-analysis

Answer 4

Pooling data from multiple studies of the same research question to arrive at one combined answer.

Question 5

Prospective research

Answer 5

A study that attempts to find a correlation between two variables by collecting data early in the life of participants and then continuing to test them over a period of time to measure change and development.

Question 6

Single-blind testing

Answer 6

an experiment in which the researchers know which participants are receiving a treatment and which are not; however, the participants do not know which condition they are in.

Question 7

Altruism

Answer 7

When one helps another person for no apparent reward and potentially even at a cost to oneself.

Question 8

Bystanderism

Answer 8

Not helping when one is in need of help.

Question 9

Congruence

Answer 9

When comments made by others about you, match your perception of yourself - that is, your “self-schema.” For example, using flattery that is not congruent with an individual’s person of him/herself may result in the “ingratiating effect” and the person may find the flatterer unattractive or no longer a good partner.

Question 10

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 10

When members of a group assume that someone else will take action. The result is that no one ends up doing anything to help someone in need.

Question 11

Egoism

Answer 11

The argument that each person has but one ultimate aim: his own welfare. With regard to helping behavior, people high in egoism only help when it brings some benefit to them - including the lowering of distress caused by witnessing someone in need of help. This is the basis of Cialdini’s theory of Negative State Relief.

Question 12

Empathy

Answer 12

the capacity to recognize emotions that are being experienced by another person.

Question 13

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

Answer 13

a group of genes that play an important role in the immune system. MHC genes make molecules that enable the immune system to recognize pathogens; in general, the more diverse the MHC genes of the parents the stronger the immune system of the offspring.

Question 14

Microexpressions

Answer 14

a brief, involuntary facial expression shown on the face of humans according to emotions experienced. They usually occur in high-stakes situations, where people have something to lose or gain. Microexpressions occur when a person is consciously trying to conceal all signs of how he or she is feeling, or when a person does not consciously know how he or she is feeling. Gottmann argues that microexpressions linked to contempt and disgust are predictors of the end of a relationship.

Question 15

Passionate love

Answer 15

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate love is characterized by intense emotions, sexual attraction, anxiety, and affection. When these intense emotions are reciprocated, people feel elated and fulfilled. Unreciprocated love leads to feelings of despondence and despair. Hatfield suggests that passionate love is transitory, usually lasting between 6 and 30 months.

Question 16

Pathogen stress

Answer 16

the level of disease-causing agents within a community.

Question 17

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 17

This is a type of social comparison that results in a group adopting a false belief. For example, studies where smoke has come into a room and confederates don’t react often result in an individual not taking action. Through informational social influence - a conformity effect - they assume that nothing is wrong, even though this is against all logic and previous learning.

Question 18

Self-disclosure

Answer 18

Sharing facts about one’s past as well as one’s inner thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Self-disclosure leads to deeper mutual understanding and demonstrates that one is willing to be vulnerable with someone that they love.

Question 19

The Empathy-Altruism Model

theory

Answer 19

Batson’s theory that helping behavior may be motivated either by the need to get rid of distress or because of a feeling of empathy toward the person who is in need of help. Batson argued that one’s level of “egoism” is a key factor in why one may or may not help.

Question 20

Exchange theory

theory

Answer 20

Argues that human behavior is based on a rational cost-benefit analysis of a situation. This may explain why people choose not to help - that is, they think about the safety involved in helping, whether they are able to help, the fear of the repercussions of failing to help someone, or the cost to health or wealth. However, it is difficult to use this theory to explain snap decisions to help which are often seen in cases of altruism.

Question 21

Kin Selection Theory

theory

Answer 21

the more two individuals are genetically related, the more sense (at the level of the genes) it makes for them to behave selflessly with each other. This is the basis of Dawkin’s “Selfish Gene” theory. This is done to maximize the “inclusive fitness” of the individual - that is, to increase one’s chance of reproduction and passing down genetic material.

Question 22

Matching hypothesis

theory

Answer 22

the idea that people are more likely to form successful relationships with and express liking for people whose level of physical attractiveness roughly equals their own.

Question 23

Mere Exposure Effect

theory

Answer 23

Feeling a preference for an individual because he or she is familiar. This is the basis for the proximity principle - the tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relations with those who are close by.

Question 24

Negative State Relief Model

theory

Answer 24

Argues that we help in order to lower one’s feeling of distress when seeing someone who is in need of help. This is an argument that helping behavior is not altruistic.